A functional discussion of the crop selection process for biomass energy
The Selection Process of Biomass Materials for the Production of Bio-fuels and Co-firing provides a detailed examination and analysis for a number of energy crops and their use as a source for generating electricity and for the production of bio-fuels. Renowned renewable energy expert and consultant Dr. Najib Altawell begins with the fundamentals of bio-fuels and co-firing and moves on to the main feature, which is the methodology that assists energy scientists and engineers to arrive at the most suitable biomass materials tailored to each company’s business and economic environments and objectives.
This methodology provides a framework whereby power-generating companies can insert their own values for each factor, whether business factor (BF) or scientific & technical factors (S&T) or both simultaneously. The methodology provides a list of factors related to the biomass energy business. The average values have been obtained from the survey method and laboratory tests. These values are the standard values power companies can use if they need or wish to use them.
The Selection Process of Biomass Materials for the Production of Bio-fuels and Co-firing has been designed and compiled for the widest possible range of readers, researchers, businesspeople, and economists who are connected to the renewable energy field in general, and biomass energy in particular. Because of its focus on practical data and applications, the book is also accessible for general readers who may or may not have a technical or scientific background.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Abbreviations xix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Why This Book? 1
1.2 The Book Structure 2
1.2.1 Introduction 2
1.2.2 Structure 3
1.3 Energy Utilization 5
1.4 The Need for Effective Biomass Utilization 7
1.5 Renewable Energy Impact on Biomass Economy 7
1.6 Summary 9
References 10
2 Background 13
2.1 Renewable Energy: A Brief Outlook 13
2.1.1 Introduction 13
2.1.2 Old Graphs 15
2.2 Wind 16
2.3 Water 17
2.4 Geothermal 17
2.5 Solar 19
2.5.1 Solar Cells 20
2.5.2 Solar Water Heating 20
2.5.3 Solar Furnaces 20
2.6 Biomass 21
2.7 Biomass as a Source of Energy 24
2.7.1 Energy Crops 27
2.7.2 Examples of Energy Crops 29
2.7.3 Biomass Utilization 30
2.7.4 Biomass and Coal Components 31
2.7.5 Types of Energy Crop Needed 32
2.7.6 Biomass Energy Infl uencing Factors 33
2.7.7 CharacteristicsCo-fi ring Properties and Testing Method 35
2.8 Biomass Applications 36
2.8.1 Bio-fuels 36
2.8.2 Electricity Generation 37
2.8.3 Heat, Steam, and CHP 37
2.8.4 Combustible Gas 38
2.8.5 Additional Bio-energy Technologies 41
2.9 Co-fi ring 42
2.9.1 Barriers for Biomass Co-firing 43
2.9.2 Additional Challenges for Co-firing 44
2.9.3 Further Advancement in Co-firing Engineering 44
2.9.4 Promoting Co-firing 45
2.10 System Engineering 46
2.11 Biomass Conversion Systems 48
2.12 Energy Crops Scheme (U.K.) 49
2.13 Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) (U.K.) 52
2.14 Climate Change Levy Exemption Certificate (LEC) (U.K.) 52
2.15 Conclusion 53
References 56
3 Co-firing Issues 61
3.1 Technical and Engineering Issues 61
3.1.1 Introduction 61
3.1.2 Hardware and Biomass Materials 62
3.2 Technical and Hardware Issues 62
3.3 Milling 65
3.4 Fuel Mixing 66
3.5 The Combustion System 71
3.5.1 Boilers 71
3.6 By-products 75
3.6.1 Ash Formation and Deposition 75
3.7 Degradation 76
3.8 Conclusion 77
References 80
4 Samples 83
4.1 Selected Samples 83
4.1.1 Introduction 83
4.2 Samples General Descriptions 84
4.2.1 The Reference Samples 84
4.3 Main Samples 91
4.3.1 Introduction 91
4.3.2 Crops Basic Composition 92
4.3.3 Crops and Oil Sources 93
4.3.4 Oil Quality and Standard 94
4.3.5 Crops Photosynthesis 94
4.3.6 Energy Crops Environmental Effect 95
4.3.7 Corn (Zea mays L.) 96
4.3.8 Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 103
4.3.9 Miscanthus (Miscanthus sinensis) 108
4.3.10 Rice (Oryza sativa) 115
4.3.11 Barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp.) 121
4.3.12 Sunfl ower (Helianthus annuus) 126
4.3.13 Niger Seed (Guizotia abyssinica) 134
4.3.14 Rapeseed (Brassica napus) 141
4.4 Conclusion 147
4.4.1 Samples Selection 148
4.4.2 The Next Step 150
References 151
5 Methodology: Part 1 161
5.1 Methodology Approach 161
5.1.1 Introduction 161
5.2 The Pyramid 162
5.3 The Decision Tree 164
5.3.1 Steps for the Biomass Fuel 164
5.3.2 Three Numbers 165
5.4 Methodology Terms and Defi nition for BF and S&T 166
5.4.1 BF 166
5.4.2 S&T 166
5.5 BF and S&T Data 166
5.5.1 Why Are Data for the BF and S&T Needed? 166
5.5.2 How Are Data for the BF Obtained? 168
5.5.3 How Are Data for the S&T Obtained? 170
5.6 Scoring System 170
5.6.1 The Method 170
5.6.2 Calculating the Score When the Reference Sample Is Set in a Positive Mode 172
5.6.3 Calculating the Score When the Reference Sample Is Set in a Negative Mode 172
5.6.4 Boundaries for S&T 174
5.6.5 Boundaries for BF 174
5.6.6 Reference Sample Boundaries 174
5.6.7 Biomass Boundaries 175
5.6.8 Scoring Plan for BF 176
5.7 Methodology Survey 177
5.8 The Survey Method 178
5.8.1 Aim 178
5.8.2 Objective 178
5.8.3 What Is the Survey Looking For? 178
5.8.4 Survey Methodology 178
5.8.5 Mode 179
5.8.6 Mode Effect 179
5.8.7 Questionnaire Design 179
5.8.8 Sample Design 179
5.8.9 Sample Size 180
5.8.10 Pretesting and Piloting 180
5.8.11 Reducing and Dealing with Nonresponse 180
5.9 Conclusion 181
References 183
6 Methodology: Part 2 185
6.1 Introduction 185
6.1.1 Biomass Samples and Methodology 186
6.2 S&T Values Analysis 186
6.3 S&T Factor Evaluations 187
6.3.1 Energy Factor (EF) 187
6.3.2 Combustion Index Factor (CIF) 190
6.3.3 Volatile Matter Factor (VMF) 193
6.3.4 Moisture Factor (MF) 195
6.3.5 Ash Factor (AF) 196
6.3.6 Density Factor (DF) 199
6.3.7 Nitrogen Emission (Nx) Factor (NEF) 201
6.4 S&T Allocation Results 203
6.4.1 Introduction 203
6.4.2 The Priority List 204
6.5 Conclusion 206
References 208
7 Methodology: Part 3 211
7.1 BF Percentage Value Selection 211
7.1.1 Introduction 211
7.1.2 BF Subjective and Objective Factors 212
7.1.3 Percentage Allocation for BF 212
7.1.4 BF Values and Headlines 213
7.1.5 Biomass Energy Commercialization and BF 213
7.2 BF Values Analysis 215
7.3 BF Evaluations 216
7.3.1 System Factor (SF) 217
7.3.2 Approach Factor (AF) 218
7.3.3 Baseline Methodology Factor (BMF) 219
7.3.4 Business Viability Factor (BVF) 219
7.3.5 Applicability Factor (APF) 220
7.3.6 Land and Water Issues Factor (LWIF) 223
7.3.7 Supply Factor (SUF) 224
7.3.8 Quality Factor (QF) 225
7.3.9 Emission Factor 226
7.4 BF Data 228
7.4.1 Introduction 228
7.4.2 The Priority List 230
7.5 Conclusion 235
References 237
8 Results: Part 1 239
8.1 Statistical Data and Errors 239
8.1.1 Introduction 239
8.2 Methodology Level Value (Boundary Level Scoring Value) 241
8.3 Calculating Standard Deviation and Relative Error 242
8.3.1 S&T Factors 243
8.3.2 Business Factors (BF) 246
8.3.3 Methodology Standard Deviation for S&T 249
8.3.4 Methodology Standard Deviation for BF 250
8.3.5 Methodology Standard Deviation 251
8.4 Analysis 251
8.5 Conclusion 255
References 257
9 Results: Part 2 259
9.1 Data and Methodology Application 259
9.1.1 Introduction 259
9.2 Tests 260
9.2.1 Experimental Tests 260
9.3 S&T Samples Data and Reports (Results) 265
9.3.1 Fossil Fuel 265
9.3.2 Biomass Materials 266
9.4 BF Samples Reports Examples (Results) 277
9.4.1 Coal BF Data (Altawell, GSTF, 2012) 277
9.4.2 Rapeseed BF Report 278
9.4.3 Black Sunfl ower Seed BF Report 278
9.4.4 Niger Seed BF Report 279
9.4.5 Apple Pruning BF Report 280
9.4.6 Striped Sunflower Seed BF Report 281
9.5 The Final Biomass Samples 282
9.5.1 S&T Results 282
9.5.2 BF Results 284
9.6 Samples Final Fitness 285
9.7 Discussion and Analysis 289
9.8 Conclusion 294
References 296
10 Economic Factors 297
10.1 Biomass Fuel Economic Factors and SFS 297
10.1.1 Introduction 297
10.2 Economic Factors 298
10.3 Biomass Business 300
10.3.1 Step 1 300
10.3.2 Step 2 301
10.3.3 Step 3 302
10.3.4 Step 4 304
10.4 Biomass Fuel Supply Chain 305
10.5 The Demand for a New Biomass Fuel 306
10.6 The SFS Economic Value Scenario 307
10.7 Discussion 308
10.8 Conclusion 310
References 312
11 Conclusion 315
11.1 General Conclusion 315
11.2 Methodology (REA1) and Applications 316
11.3 Why Biomass? 316
11.4 Co-firing and Power Generating 318
11.5 The New Biomass Fuel (SFS) 318
11.6 The Future of Co-firing and Biomass Energy 319
11.7 Final Results and Final Conclusion 320
11.8 Positive Outlook 320
11.9 What Next? 321
References 321
Index 323
