Fish farming, in seawater and in freshwater, in cages, tanks or ponds, makes an ever-increasing and significant contribution to the production of aquatic food in many regions of the world. During the last few decades there has been significant progress and expansion in the aquaculture sector, characterized by intensified production and the exploitation of many new species.
Aquaculture must be a sustainable bio-production, environmentally as well as economically. Disease prevention in order to reduce losses, and the use of antimicrobials is crucial in this perspective. Vaccination has, in a few years, become the most important method for disease prevention in aquaculture, and effective prophylaxis based on stimulation of the immune system of the fish is essential for further development of the industry.
This book provides general information about disease prevention in fish by vaccination, as well as specific descriptions of the correct use of vaccines against the most important bacterial and viral infectious diseases of aquatic animals. The book is written by some of the world’s leading experts in the subject, drawn from many countries where aquaculture is a significant and expanding part of the economy.
Fish Vaccination is an encyclopedia of fish vaccinology for every present and future aquaculturist. Professionals in the aquaculture sector, including fish veterinarians and fish biologists, within the industry, in scientific institutions and regulatory authorities will all find a huge wealth of commercially important knowledge within this book. Libraries in all universities where aquaculture, biological and veterinary sciences are studied and taught should have copies of this important book on their shelves.
Table of Contents
Contributors xv
Preface xix
1 The History of Fish Vaccination 1
Roar Gudding and Thomas Goodrich
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aquaculture 2
1.3 Immunology 2
1.4 Disease Prevention 3
1.5 Scientific Production – Reviews and Conferences 4
1.6 Successes and Failures 7
1.7 The Pioneers 7
1.8 Concluding Remarks 8
References 9
2 Vaccination as a Preventive Measure 12
Roar Gudding
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Biosecurity and Vaccination 13
2.3 Use of Vaccination in Aquaculture 15
2.4 Vaccination Against Different Diseases 16
2.5 Herd Immunity 17
2.6 Economic Considerations 18
2.7 Risk Assessment 18
2.8 The Market for Fish Vaccines 19
References 20
3 Non-replicating Vaccines 22
Hetron Mweemba Munang’andu, Stephen Mutoloki and Øystein Evensen
3.1 Introduction 22
3.2 Classification 22
3.3 Inactivated Vaccines – Methods of Inactivation 24
3.4 Evaluation of Inactivation Efficacy 28
3.5 Measures of Efficacy for Inactivated Vaccines 28
3.6 Mechanisms of Vaccine Protection 29
3.7 Antibodies as Correlates of Protective Immunity 29
3.8 Antigen Dose as Correlate of Protective Immunity 30
References 30
4 Replicating Vaccines 33
Craig A. Shoemaker and Phillip H. Klesius
4.1 Introduction 33
4.2 Attenuation Strategies – Bacterial Vaccines 34
4.3 Attenuation Strategies – Viral Vaccines 38
4.4 Induction of Immunity 39
4.5 Vaccine Delivery 41
4.6 Vaccine Safety Considerations 41
4.7 Acknowledgement 41
References 42
5 DNA Vaccines 47
Eirik Biering and Kira Salonius
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Comparison of DNA Vaccines with Conventional Inactivated Products: Advantages and Disadvantages 48
5.3 DNA Vaccines for Veterinary Use 51
5.4 Biosecurity and Regulatory Considerations 52
References 54
6 Mucosal Vaccination of Fish 56
Jan H.W.M. Rombout and Viswanath Kiron
6.1 Introduction 56
6.2 History of “Mucosal” Vaccination 57
6.3 Mucosal versus Systemic Immunity in Fish 58
6.4 Immersion Vaccination 59
6.5 Oral Vaccination 60
6.6 Perspectives 64
References 64
7 Adjuvants in Fish Vaccines 68
Carolina Tafalla, Jarl Bøgwald, Roy A. Dalmo, Hetron Mweemba Munang’andu and Øystein Evensen
7.1 Introduction 68
7.2 Vaccine Formulations 69
7.3 Principles of Adjuvant Actions 70
7.4 Antigenic Component 70
7.5 Adjuvants 71
7.6 Antigen Delivery Systems 71
7.7 Delivery Vehicles 71
7.8 Emulsion Vaccines 72
7.9 Biodegradable Particulate Delivery Systems 74
7.10 Fusion Protein Delivery System 74
7.11 Immunomodulators 75
7.12 Stabilizers 81
7.13 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 81
7.14 Acknowledgements 81
References 81
8 The Innate Immune Response in Fish 85
Jorunn B. Jørgensen
8.1 Introduction 85
8.2 Innate Immunity: A Sensing and an Effector Arm 86
8.3 Professional Phagocytes: The Macrophages and the Neutrophilic Granulocytes 86
8.4 Natural Killer (NK)-Like Cells 88
8.5 The Sensing Arm of Innate Immunity 88
8.6 TLRs are the Best Studied PRRS in Fish 89
8.7 NOD-Like and RIG-I Receptors are Found in Fish 90
8.8 Lectins are Multifunctional Sensor Molecules for Carbohydrate Ligands 91
8.9 PRRs and the Induction of Immunity 92
8.10 Cytokines in Innate Immunity 92
8.11 Interferons 94
8.12 The Complement System 95
8.13 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 97
References 97
9 The Adaptive Immune Response in Fish 104
Stephen Mutoloki, Jorunn B. Jørgensen and Øystein Evensen
9.1 Introduction 105
9.2 Lymphocytes are the Key Cells of the Adaptive Immune System 106
9.3 Antigen Trapping and Activation of the Lymphocytes 106
9.4 Antigen Presenting Cells (APCS) of Myeloid Origin 107
9.5 Immunoglobulins and B Lymphocytes 108
9.6 T Lymphocytes 110
9.7 Cytotoxic T-Cells 111
9.8 Helper T-Cells 111
References 113
10 Development, Production and Control of Fish Vaccines 116
Dag Knappskog, Joseph Koumans, Inger Kvitvang, Arne Marius Fiskum and Rune Wiulsrød
10.1 Introduction 116
10.2 Manufacturing License 117
10.3 Vaccine Development 121
10.4 Development of Tests 122
10.5 Transfers 123
10.6 Manufacturing 124
References 127
11 Legal Requirements and Authorization of Fish Vaccines 128
Anja Holm, Byron E. Rippke and Ken Noda
11.1 Introduction 128
11.2 Manufacturer Authorization 128
11.3 Food Safety – Maximum Residue Limits 131
11.4 Genetically Modified Organisms 131
11.5 DNA Vaccines 132
11.6 Prohibition of Use of Certain Vaccines 132
11.7 Use of Vaccines that are not Authorized 132
11.8 Autogenous Vaccines 133
11.9 Regional Rules and Competent Authorities 133
11.10 The European Union and Connected EEA Countries 133
11.11 United States of America 135
11.12 Japan 137
11.13 Other Relevant Organizations: OIE, FAO, WHO 138
References 138
12 Vaccination Strategies and Procedures 140
Atle Lillehaug
12.1 Introduction 141
12.2 Timing of Vaccination 141
12.3 Water Temperature 142
12.4 Size of Fish 142
12.5 Vaccination Methods 143
12.6 Time for Protection to Develop – Duration of Protection 148
12.7 Booster Vaccination 149
12.8 Vaccination Economy 150
References 150
13 Side-Effects of Vaccination 153
Trygve T. Poppe and Erling O. Koppang
13.1 Introduction 153
13.2 Acute Side-Effects 154
13.3 Chronic Side-Effects 155
13.4 Injection Site Reactions 155
13.5 Extensive Abdominal Lesions 156
13.6 Lesions in Other Organs 158
13.7 Skeletal Lesions 159
13.8 Autoimmunity 159
13.9 Lesions in Non-Salmonid Species 159
References 160
14 Future Fish Vaccinology 162
Øystein Evensen
14.1 Molecular Technologies 162
14.2 Recombinant Vaccines 163
14.3 Marker Vaccines 166
14.4 Mucosal Vaccination 166
14.5 Vaccines Against Parasitic Diseases 167
14.6 Vaccines for Controlling Reproduction 167
14.7 Improved Formulations 168
14.8 Immunomodulation 168
14.9 Cytokines and DAMPS (Danger-Associated Molecular Pattern) as Adjuvants 169
14.10 Concluding Remarks 169
References 170
15 Vaccination against Vibriosis 172
Duncan J. Colquhoun and Atle Lillehaug
15.1 Vibriosis 172
15.2 Occurrence and Significance 173
15.3 Etiology 174
15.4 Pathogenesis 176
15.5 Vaccines 177
15.6 Vaccination Procedures 179
15.7 Vaccine Effect 179
15.8 Side-Effects 180
15.9 Regulations 180
References 181
16 Vaccination against Furunculosis 185
Paul J. Midtlyng
16.1 Introduction 185
16.2 Occurrence and Significance 186
16.3 Etiology 187
16.4 Pathogenesis and Virulence 187
16.5 Antigens 189
16.6 Vaccines 189
16.7 Vaccination Procedures 190
16.8 Effects 191
16.9 Side-Effects 192
16.10 Vaccination Against Atypical Furunculosis 192
16.11 Legal Aspects and Regulations 193
References 194
17 Vaccination against Photobacteriosis 200
Jesús L. Romalde
17.1 Occurrence and Significance 200
17.2 Etiology 202
17.3 Pathogenesis 202
17.4 Vaccines 204
17.5 Vaccination Procedures 205
17.6 Effect 206
17.7 Side-Effects 206
17.8 Regulations 207
References 207
18 Vaccination against Enteric Septicemia of Catfish 211
Phillip H. Klesius and Julia W. Pridgeon
18.1 Significance 211
18.2 Occurrence 212
18.3 Etiology 212
18.4 Pathogenesis 213
18.5 Virulence Factors 214
18.6 Vaccines and Immunity 214
18.7 Regulations (US) 220
18.8 Vaccination Practices 220
References 221
19 Vaccination against Yersiniosis 226
Andrew Bridle and Barbara Nowak
19.1 Yersiniosis 226
19.2 Occurrence and Significance 227
19.3 Etiology 227
19.4 Pathogenesis 228
19.5 Vaccines 229
19.6 Vaccination Procedures 230
19.7 Vaccine Effect 231
19.8 Side-Effects 232
19.9 Regulations 232
References 233
20 Vaccination against Streptococcosis and Lactococcosis 236
Julia W. Pridgeon and Phillip H. Klesius
20.1 Occurrence 236
20.2 Significance 236
20.3 Etiology 237
20.4 Pathogenesis 238
20.5 Vaccines 239
20.6 Vaccination Procedures and Vaccine Effect 240
20.7 Side-Effects 242
20.8 Regulations 242
References 243
21 Vaccination against Piscirickettsiosis 246
Sergio H. Marshall and Jaime A. Tobar
21.1 Occurrence and Significance 246
21.2 Etiology 247
21.3 Pathogenesis 248
21.4 Vaccines and Vaccination 248
21.5 Current Vaccine Status 249
21.6 Future Perspectives 251
References 252
22 Vaccination against Bacterial Kidney Disease 255
Diane G. Elliott, Gregory D. Wiens, K. Larry Hammell and Linda D. Rhodes
22.1 Introduction 255
22.2 Occurrence 256
22.3 Significance 256
22.4 Etiology 257
22.5 Pathogenesis 259
22.6 Vaccines 260
22.7 Vaccination Procedures 261
22.8 Vaccine Effects and Side-Effects 262
22.9 Regulations 264
22.10 Future Directions 264
References 266
23 Vaccination against Diseases Caused by Flavobacteriaceae Species 273
Krister Sundell, Eva Högfors-Rönnholm and Tom Wiklund
23.1 Introduction 273
23.2 Bacterial Gill Disease (Flavobacterium branchiophilum) 274
23.3 Columnaris Disease (Flavobacterium columnare) 275
23.4 Bacterial Cold-Water Disease (Flavobacterium psychrophilum) 278
23.5 Tenacibaculosis (Tenacibaculum maritimum) 281
References 282
24 Vaccination against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia and Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis 289
Stéphane Biacchesi and Michel Brémont
24.1 Occurrence and Significance 289
24.2 Etiology 291
24.3 Pathogenesis 292
24.4 Vaccines 293
24.5 Concluding Remarks 297
24.6 Acknowledgements 297
References 298
25 Vaccination against Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis 303
Espen Rimstad
25.1 Occurrence and Significance 303
25.2 Etiology 305
25.3 Pathogenesis 306
25.4 Vaccines and Vaccine Effect 306
25.5 Vaccine-Induced Immune Responses 309
25.6 Regulations 309
References 309
26 Vaccination against Infectious Salmon Anemia 313
Knut Falk
26.1 Occurrence and Significance 313
26.2 Etiology 314
26.3 Pathogenesis 315
26.4 Vaccines 316
26.5 Regulatory Issues 317
References 318
27 Vaccination against Koi Herpesvirus Disease 321
Arnon Dishon, Ofer Ashoulin, E. Scott Weber III and Moshe Kotler
27.1 Occurrence and Significance 321
27.2 Etiology 322
27.3 Pathogenesis 323
27.4 Vaccine and Vaccination 324
27.5 Efficacy 327
27.6 Safety 329
27.7 Regulatory Issues 330
References 330
28 Vaccination against Diseases Caused by Salmonid alphavirus 334
Emilie Mérour and Michel Brémont
28.1 Occurrence and Significance 334
28.2 Etiology 335
28.3 Pathogenesis 338
28.4 Immunity and Vaccine Development 338
References 339
29 Vaccination against Diseases Caused by Betanodavirus 341
Sonal Patel and Audun H. Nerland
29.1 Viral Encephalopathy and Retinopathy (VER) 341
29.2 Occurrence and Significance 342
29.3 Etiology 342
29.4 Pathogenesis 343
29.5 Immune Status and Response to NNV 344
29.6 Vaccines 344
29.7 Replicating Vaccines 345
29.8 Inactivated Virus 347
29.9 Recombinant Protein/Peptide 347
29.10 DNA Vaccines 348
29.11 Future Prospects and Recommendations 349
References 349
30 Immunostimulation of Crustaceans 352
Indrani Karunasagar, Singaiah NaveenKumar, Biswajit Maiti and Praveen Rai
30.1 Introduction 352
30.2 Immune System of Crustaceans 353
30.3 Immunostimulants of Crustaceans 361
30.4 Acknowledgements 366
References 366
Index 373
