Covering common problems, likely failures and their remedies, this is an essential on-site guide to the behaviour
of a building’s structure. Presented in a clear structure and user-friendly style, the book goes through all the structural aspects of a building and assesses the importance of the different components. It explains the structural behaviour of buildings, giving some of the basics of structures together with plenty of real-life examples and guidance.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements xiii
About the Author xv
Introduction xvii
Chapter 1 The History of Buildings 1
The development of building knowledge 1
Styles of architecture and building construction 2
Chapter 2 Loadings and Aspects of Structural Theory Relating to Buildings 19
Weight and mass 19
Permanent actions or dead loads 19
Variable actions or imposed loads 20
Wind load 20
Accidental actions 26
Seismic action 26
BS EN 1991: Actions on structures EC1 26
Combinations of load and factors of safety 26
Stress 27
Strain 27
Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity 27
Plastic deformation 27
Buckling 29
Local buckling 29
Second moment of area 29
Centre of gravity 30
Lateral torsional buckling 30
Neutral axis 30
Bending force 30
Shear force and bending moment 31
Deflection 31
Static equilibrium 31
Internal forces 32
Derivation of shear force 35
Derivation of bending moment 35
Derivation of deflection 36
Basic theory of bending 37
Moment of resistance 39
Combined bending and direct stress 40
External and internal statically determinate structures 40
Connections and restraints 41
Stiffness 44
Buildings and load paths 45
Chapter 3 The Construction of Buildings 49
Breathable and non-breathable construction 49
Timber frame 51
Stone 64
Modern timber frame construction 81
Solid brick construction 81
Cavity construction 82
Steel construction 84
Commercial steel portal frames 87
Precast concrete construction 88
Chapter 4 Steel 93
Steel properties 93
Lateral torsional buckling 93
The effect of end restraints on a beam 93
Bending failure 101
Local buckling 101
Shear failure 102
Web bearing and buckling 102
Deflection 102
Fire and corrosion 102
Chapter 5 Concrete 105
The history of cement and concrete 105
Cement 105
Water and workability – now known as consistence 106
Failure of concrete 107
Strength of concrete 109
Concrete mix designs 109
Creep 111
Environment 111
Air-entrained concrete 111
Accelerators and retarders 112
Plasticizers 112
Fly ash, silica flume and ground granulated blast furnace slag 112
Anti-corrosion 112
Chapter 6 Timber 113
Grading of timber 113
Moisture 113
Air-dried timber 119
Kiln-dried timber 119
Dimensions of timber 120
Shear 120
Bending 120
Deflection 121
Chapter 7 Foundations 123
Purpose of foundations 123
The history of foundations 123
Building Regulation requirements 124
Stepped foundation 125
Types of foundation 126
Piles 132
Bearing pressure 134
Bearing capacity 134
Eccentric loading on foundations 137
Climatic and moisture changes 138
Physical damage by trees 139
Underpinning 139
Chapter 8 Walls 141
The strength of walls 141
Masonry unit 141
Frost resistance and soluble salts 142
Concrete blocks 143
Mortar 143
Lime putty (non-hydraulic lime) 144
Hydraulic lime 144
Important rules in the use of lime mortars 144
Cement 145
Characteristic strength of masonry 145
Slenderness ratio 146
Flexural stiffness and the second moment of area 147
Euler load 148
Leaning walls and stability 153
Movement joints 153
Changes due to temperature changes 154
Changes due to moisture changes 154
Traditional design of walls 155
Middle-third rule 156
Timber frame walls and raking 157
Chapter 9 Floors 161
The history of floors 161
Modern solid floors 162
Suspended floors and engineered floor joists 163
Holes and notches in floor joists 163
Limecrete 168
The use of plaster and lime ash floors 168
Beam and block suspended floors and hollow core floors 171
Damp 171
Salts 172
Sulphate attack 172
Ceilings 173
Chapter 10 Roofs 175
Trussed and cut roofs 175
Modern truss roofs 175
Cut roofs 177
Roof components 179
Wind bracing 188
Roof spread 189
Overloading of roof members 191
Alterations to roof structures 192
Traditional timber frame building trusses 192
Modern rafter design 193
Flat roof construction 195
Chapter 11 Arches and Columns 197
The history of arches 197
Inversion theory 197
Line of thrust 199
Formation of hinges 201
Visible line of thrust 201
Height and thickness of an arch 203
Gothic arch 203
Domes 203
Columns 204
Chapter 12 Geology 209
The importance of understanding geology 209
Sinkholes 209
Landslips 213
Mining 216
Loess 220
Quick sand 220
Seismic activity 220
Drainage and the water table 220
Chapter 13 Site Investigation 223
Site investigation 223
Boreholes 223
Trenches 223
Geophysics 223
Gravity surveys 223
Magnetic surveys 224
Electromagnetic surveys 224
Electrical surveys 224
Ground-penetrating radar 224
Seismic reflection surveys 224
Seismic refraction 224
Made-up ground or fill 225
Walkover 225
Japanese knotweed 227
Buddleia 227
Desk study 227
Radon 228
Chapter 14 Stability of Buildings 229
Disproportionate collapse 229
Class 1 230
Class 2A 230
Class 2B 230
Class 3 231
Chapter 15 Dimensions of Buildings 233
Building Regulations Part A 233
Slenderness ratio 234
Buttresses and end restraints 245
Lateral restraint of walls and roofs 245
Chapter 16 Basements and Retaining Structures 247
Structural considerations 247
Safety factors 248
Theory behind the design 248
Loading 248
Angle of shearing resistance 250
Effects of water 251
Proportions of walls 251
Design example 252
Specialist advice 260
Types of wall 278
Basements 281
Chapter 17 Structural Alterations 283
Preliminary considerations 283
Removal of walls 283
Alterations to timbers and trusses 285
Alterations to roof structures for dormers 287
Loft conversions 288
Flitch beams 289
Lintels and openings 293
Chapter 18 Structural Defects in Buildings 295
Structural defects 295
Compression 295
Tension 295
Shear 295
Random cracking 295
Location of cracking 296
Roof spread 296
Settlement 296
Shrinkage due to thermal and moisture movements 297
Movement of brickwork along the damp-proof course 298
Subsidence 298
Chemical reactions 301
High alumina cement (HAC) 302
Wall tie failure 302
Damp 303
Overloading 303
Professional advice 305
Chapter 19 The Ancient Use of Sign and Geometry in the Setting Out of Buildings 307
Daisy wheel 307
The golden number or golden mean 307
Pythagoras 309
Masonic markings 309
Ordnance datum bench marks 310
References 313
Index 315
