Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference provides basic information on harmful algal blooms (HAB) and references for individuals in need of technical information when faced with unexpected or unknown harmful algal events. Chapters in this volume will provide readers with information on causes of HAB, successful management and monitoring programs, control, prevention, and mitigation strategies, economic consequences of HAB, associated risks to human health, impacts of HAB on food webs and ecosystems, and detailed information on the most common HAB species.
Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference will be an invaluable resource to managers, newcomers to the field, those who do not have easy or affordable access to scientific literature, and individuals who simply do not know where to begin searching for the information needed, especially when faced with novel and unexpected HAB events.
Edited by three of the world's leading harmful algal bloom researchers and with contributions from leading experts, Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference will be a key source of information for this increasingly important topic.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Introduction xxiii
1 Causes of Harmful Algal Blooms 1
Patricia M. Glibert and JoAnn M. Burkholder
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 “Getting There”: The Classic Perspective on Introduced Species and Links to Cultural Eutrophication 2
1.2.1 Introduced Species 2
1.2.2 Anthropogenically Introduced Nutrients 3
1.3 “Being There”: Blooms and Why They Succeed 5
1.3.1 Nutrient-Related HAB 5
1.3.2 Resource Ratios, Nutrient Stoichiometry, and Optimal Nutrient Ratios 6
1.3.3 Diversity in Use of Forms of Nitrogen 9
1.3.4 Toxicity 10
1.3.5 Mixotrophy: Use of “Packaged” and Dissolved Particulate Nutrients 12
1.3.6 Other Adaptations 13
1.4 “Staying There”: Links to Physical Structure and Climate 14
1.4.1 Physical Structure: Large-Scale and Small-Scale Natural Hydrological Features 14
1.4.2 Physical Dynamics: Anthropogenic Hydrological Changes 15
1.4.3 Reinforcing Feedbacks 16
1.4.3.1 Trophic Disruptions 16
1.4.3.2 Biogeochemical Alterations 17
1.4.4 Climate Change 18
1.5 Conclusions 20
Acknowledgments 21
References 21
2 Detection and Surveillance of Harmful Algal Bloom Species and Toxins 39
Gregory J. Doucette, Linda K. Medlin, Pearse McCarron, and Philipp Hess
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Organism Detection 41
2.2.1 Visual/Optical 41
2.2.1.1 Light Microscopy (LM)/Utermöhl’s 41
2.2.1.2 Light Microscopy/Flow Cytometry 41
2.2.1.3 In Vivo Fluorometry 42
2.2.1.4 Spectral Absorbance/Spectroradiometry 43
2.2.2 Molecular 43
2.2.2.1 Whole Cell Format 44
2.2.2.2 Cell-Free Format 47
2.3 Toxin Detection 51
2.3.1 In Vivo Assays 53
2.3.1.1 Rat Bioassay 58
2.3.1.2 Mouse Bioassay 58
2.3.2 In Vitro Assays 59
2.3.2.1 Functional Assays 60
2.3.2.2 Structural Assays 66
2.3.2.3 Biosensors 71
2.3.3 Analytical Techniques 72
2.3.3.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Optical Detection (UV or FLD) 73
2.3.3.2 Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) 75
2.3.3.3 Other Analytical Methods: Capillary Electrophoresis (CE), Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF), and Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization (LAESI) 78
2.3.3.4 Perspectives 79
2.4 Autonomous, In Situ Technologies 80
2.4.1 Environmental Sample Processor (McLane Research Laboratories) 81
2.4.2 Imaging Flow Cytobot (McLane Research Laboratories) 83
2.4.3 Optical Phytoplankton Discriminator (aka BreveBuster; Mote Marine Laboratory) 84
2.4.4 CytoBuoy (CytoBuoy b.v.) 85
2.4.5 SPATT Passive Samplers 86
2.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 87
Disclaimer 89
References and Further Reading 89
3 Modeling Marine Harmful Algal Blooms: Current Status and Future Prospects 115
Kevin J. Flynn and Dennis J. McGillicuddy, Jr.
3.1 Introduction 115
3.2 Building Models to Describe Ecological Events 117
3.3 Limitations to What Models Can Do, and Why 119
3.3.1 Building Models 119
3.3.2 Model Complexity 119
3.3.3 The Need for Data 120
3.3.4 Validating Models 121
3.4 Modeling T-HAB and ED-HAB Events 121
3.5 How Good Are Current HAB Models? 122
3.6 Future Modeling of T-HAB and ED-HAB: Managing Expectations 128
3.7 Improving Our Capabilities 129
3.7.1 Changes in the Biological–Modeling Interface 129
Acknowledgments 130
References 130
4 Harmful Algal Blooms and Shellfish 135
Leila Basti, Hélène Hégaret, and Sandra E. Shumway
4.1 Introduction 135
4.2 Major Shellfish Poisonings 136
4.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 136
4.2.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 137
4.2.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 138
4.2.4 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) 139
4.2.5 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) 139
4.3 Other Toxins: Pectenotoxins (PTX) and Yessotoxins (YTX) 140
4.4 Emerging Shellfish Poisonings 141
4.5 Toxin Uptake, Accumulation, and Depuration 142
4.6 Shellfish Contamination in North America 143
4.6.1 Bivalves 143
4.6.1.1 Paralytic Shellfish Contamination 143
4.6.1.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Contamination 149
4.6.1.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Contamination 150
4.6.1.4 Amnesic Shellfish Contamination 151
4.6.2 Gastropods 154
4.6.3 Crustaceans 162
4.7 Impacts on Shellfish 163
4.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 164
References and Further Reading 167
5 Vulnerabilities of Marine Mammals to Harmful Algal Blooms 191
Margaret H. Broadwater, Frances M. Van Dolah, and Spencer E. Fire
5.1 Introduction 191
5.2 Overview of Algal Toxins 192
5.2.1 Brevetoxins 193
5.2.2 Ciguatoxins 199
5.2.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins 200
5.2.4 Domoic Acid 201
5.2.5 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins 206
5.2.6 Other Algal and Cyanobacterial Toxins 209
5.3 Impacts of Algal Toxins Specific to Marine Mammals 210
5.3.1 The Effects of Toxin Exposure Depend on Animal Physiology and Behavior 210
5.3.2 Emerging Issues: Non-acute and Multiple Toxin Exposure 211
5.3.3 Prospects for Managing Impacts of HAB 211
5.4 Considerations for the Evaluation of HAB Toxins in Marine Mammals 212
5.4.1 Sampling Marine Mammals for HAB Toxin Analysis 213
5.4.2 Priority Needs for Investigating HAB Toxin Involvement in Marine Mammal Morbidity and Mortality 214
Abbreviations 214
References and Further Reading 215
6 Interactions between Seabirds and Harmful Algal Blooms 223
Corinne M. Gibble and Brian A. Hoover
6.1 Introduction 223
6.2 Historical Interactions between HAB and Seabirds 224
6.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 224
6.2.2 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 227
6.2.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning 228
6.2.4 Akashiwo sanguinea 228
6.2.5 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 229
6.2.6 CyanoHAB 230
6.3 Improved Monitoring and Establishment of Causality 231
6.3.1 Coordinating Monitoring and Pathology to Confirm Relationships between HAB and Seabird Mortality 231
6.3.2 Seabirds as Biological Indicators 233
6.4 Implications for Conservation 234
References 235
7 Food Web and Ecosystem Impacts of Harmful Algae 243
JoAnn M. Burkholder, Sandra E. Shumway, and Patricia M. Glibert
7.1 Introduction 243
7.2 Approaches, Pitfalls, Progress, and Goals 277
7.3 High-Biomass Algal Blooms 279
7.4 Emerging Recognition of the Roles of Allelochemicals 282
7.4.1 Microalgae 283
7.4.2 Thalloid Macroalgae 285
7.4.3 Filamentous Mat-Forming Macroalgae 287
7.5 Toxigenic Algae in Aquatic Food Webs 287
7.5.1 Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa Blooms across North America 289
7.5.2 Toxic Prymnesium parvum Blooms and Fish Communities in Two Texas Rivers 290
7.5.3 Toxic Pseudo-nitzschia Blooms in Coastal Upwelling Areas 292
7.5.4 Toxic Alexandrium Blooms in the Northeast 292
7.5.5 Toxic Karenia brevis Blooms along the Florida Coast 293
7.6 Ecosystem-Disruptive Algal Blooms 294
7.7 Future Directions 295
Appendix A: Scientific Names for Organisms Listed by Common Name in This Chapter, Also Indicating Species Affected by Karenia brevis (Kb) 297
References and Further Reading 301
8 Assessing the Economic Consequences of Harmful Algal Blooms: A Summary of Existing Literature, Research Methods, Data, and Information Gaps 337
Charles M. Adams, Sherry L. Larkin, Porter Hoagland, and Brian Sancewich
8.1 Introduction 337
8.2 Overview 338
8.3 Research Methodologies 338
8.4 Sources and Types of Data 347
8.5 Spatial and Temporal Scopes 348
8.6 Nature of the Hazard 349
8.7 Current Research Gaps 350
8.8 Conclusion 351
Acknowledgments 351
References and Further Reading 351
9 Public Health and Epidemiology 355
Lynn M. Grattan, Joe Schumacker, Andrew Reich, and Sailor Holobaugh
9.1 Introduction 355
9.2 What Is Public Health and Epidemiology? 355
9.3 HAB and Human Illness 356
9.3.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 357
9.3.1.1 Exposure 357
9.3.1.2 Clinical Symptoms 361
9.3.1.3 Treatment 361
9.3.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) 361
9.3.2.1 Exposure 361
9.3.2.2 Clinical Syndrome 361
9.3.2.3 Treatment 362
9.3.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 362
9.3.3.1 Exposure 362
9.3.3.2 Clinical Illness 363
9.3.3.3 Treatment 363
9.3.4 Brevetoxin Inhalation Syndrome (BIS) 363
9.3.4.1 Exposure 363
9.3.4.2 Clinical Illness 363
9.3.4.3 Treatment 363
9.3.5 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 363
9.3.5.1 Exposure 363
9.3.5.2 Clinical Syndrome 364
9.3.5.3 Treatment 364
9.3.6 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) 364
9.3.6.1 Exposure 364
9.3.6.2 Clinical Illness 364
9.3.6.3 Treatment 365
9.3.7 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) 365
9.3.7.1 Exposure 365
9.3.7.2 Clinical Syndrome 366
9.3.7.3 Treatment 366
9.3.8 Toxic Cyanobacteria 366
9.3.8.1 Exposure 366
9.3.8.2 Clinical Syndromes 366
9.3.8.3 Treatment 366
9.4 The HAB Manager’s Role in Preventing HAB-Related Illnesses 367
9.4.1 HAB Management Exemplars 367
9.4.2 The Native American Perspective from Washington State, USA: Domoic Acid and Paralytic Shellfish Toxins 367
9.4.2.1 Background 367
9.4.2.2 Tribal Capacity and Inclusion 369
9.4.2.3 Lessons Learned 369
9.4.3 The Florida Department of Health Perspective 369
9.4.3.1 Harmful Algal Blooms 370
9.5 HAB-Related Stressors and Human Resilience 370
9.6 Conclusion 371
References and Further Reading 371
10 Marine Biotoxin and Harmful Algae Monitoring and Management 377
Gregg W. Langlois and Steve L. Morton
10.1 Introduction 377
10.2 Identifying Sampling Program Needs 383
10.3 Developing a Sampling Program for Shellfish Monitoring 384
10.3.1 Shellfish Sampling Stations 384
10.3.2 Monitoring Shellfish Toxicity 386
10.4 Developing a Sampling Program for Phytoplankton Monitoring 388
10.4.1 Phytoplankton Sampling Stations 388
10.4.2 Monitoring Phytoplankton 389
10.5 Monitoring Other Fisheries 394
10.6 Novel Approaches and Advanced Tools to Enhance Monitoring Programs 396
10.6.1 Diversifying Program Participation: Volunteer Monitors 396
10.6.2 Field Testing for Toxins: PSP and ASP 399
10.6.3 Screening Tests for Toxins: DSP and PSP 401
10.6.4 SPATT 401
10.6.5 Oceanographic Data 402
10.7 Management Considerations 408
10.7.1 Commercial Shellfish 408
10.7.2 Recreational Shellfishing 411
10.8 Phytoplankton Sampling Protocol Examples 413
10.9 HAB Forecasting Links 413
Acknowledgments 413
References and Further Reading 413
11 Harmful Algal Bloom Education and Outreach 419
Mare Timmons, Mary Sweeney-Reeves, and Steve L. Morton
11.1 Introduction 419
11.2 K–12 Education 426
11.3 Web-Based and Distance Learning Education 427
11.4 Citizen Science 428
11.4.1 Contributions of Citizen Science 429
11.4.2 Connecting Citizen Science to Ocean Learning 431
11.4.2.1 Safety 431
11.4.2.2 Training Sessions 431
11.5 Conclusion 432
References and Further Reading 432
12 Prevention, Control, and Mitigation of Harmful Algal Bloom Impacts on Fish, Shellfish, and Human Consumers 435
Kevin G. Sellner and J.E. (Jack) Rensel
12.1 Introduction 435
12.2 HAB Prevention 435
12.2.1 Aquaculture Site Selection or Relocation 435
12.2.2 Nutrient Load Reductions 436
12.2.3 Phytoplankton Mixing, Increasing Turbulence, and Decreasing Residence Times (Mostly Freshwater Systems) 440
12.2.4 Reducing HA Introductions 441
12.3 Preventing and Reducing HAB Impacts on Shellfish and Fish 442
12.3.1 Preventing Human and Animal Exposures 442
12.3.1.1 Shellfish and Finfish Monitoring 442
12.3.1.2 Depuration and Detoxification 444
12.3.1.3 Food Processing 444
12.3.1.4 Cooking 445
12.3.1.5 Aerosols 445
12.3.1.6 Medical Treatments 445
12.4 HAB Controls 445
12.4.1 Protections 445
12.4.2 Biomass Removal 446
12.4.3 Capping 446
12.4.4 Nutrient Trapping in Sediments 446
12.4.5 Reductions of Algal Resting Stages (Cysts) 446
12.5 Mitigation of HAB 447
12.5.1 Detection 447
12.5.2 Chemical Additions 448
12.5.3 Flocculation 451
12.5.4 Barely Straw (Hordeum vulgare) 454
12.5.5 Other Treatments 455
12.5.5.1 UV Exposure 455
12.5.5.2 Cavitation 455
12.5.5.3 Ultrasound 455
12.5.5.4 Electrolysis 456
12.5.5.5 Hydraulics and Mixing 456
12.5.5.6 Biological Controls 456
12.6 Shellfish 458
12.7 Fish Mariculture 459
12.7.1 HAB Mitigation for Fish Mariculture 459
12.7.2 Best Management Practices for Fish Mariculture Siting, Including HAB and Eutrophication Issues 460
12.7.2.1 Local Land Use 460
12.7.2.2 Plankton Monitoring and Water Quality Assessments 460
12.7.2.3 Physical Hydrographic Considerations 461
12.7.2.4 Vertical Mixing Considerations 461
12.7.3 Mitigation of HAB at Fish Mariculture Facilities 461
12.7.4 HAB Mitigation Methods for Fish Mariculture 462
12.7.4.1 Feeding and Handling Practices 462
12.8 Conclusions 470
Acknowledgments 474
References 474
Further Reading 492
13 Harmful Algae Introductions: Vectors of Transfer, Mitigation, and Management 493
Shauna Murray and Gustaaf Hallegraeff
13.1 Summary 493
13.2 The Biogeographic Ranges of Harmful Algal Bloom Species 493
13.3 Vectors of Transfer 494
13.3.1 Natural Factors 494
13.3.2 Ballast Water 494
13.3.3 Translocation of Aquaculture Products 494
13.4 Molecular Evidence for Introductions of New Species to a Region 494
13.4.1 The Stalk-Forming Freshwater Fouling Diatom Didymosphenia geminata 495
13.4.2 Alexandrium pacificum and A. minutum in European and Japanese Waters 496
13.4.3 Gymnodinium catenatum in Australia and Europe 497
13.5 Prevention and Risk Reduction 498
13.5.1 Code of Practice on Translocation with Aquaculture Products 498
13.5.2 Warning for HAB in Ballast Water-Uptake Zones and When Translocating Aquaculture Products 498
13.5.3 Ballast Water Management 498
13.5.4 Other Precautionary Measures 500
13.6 Emergency Treatment Options 501
References 502
14 Culture and Culture Collections 507
Gary H. Wikfors and Steve L. Morton
14.1 Introduction 507
14.2 Step 1: Sampling the Environment 507
14.3 Step 2: Processing a Field Sample in the Laboratory to Confirm Presence of the Target Organism 509
14.4 Step 3: From Spark to Flame 511
14.5 Step 4: Long-Term Perpetuation of HAB Cultures 511
14.6 Epilogue 512
Further Reading 513
15 Harmful Macroalgal Blooms in a Changing World: Causes, Impacts, and Management 515
Brian E. Lapointe, JoAnn M. Burkholder, and Kathryn L. Van Alstyne
15.1 Introduction 515
15.2 Freshwater and Other Inland Macroalgae 516
15.3 Estuarine and Coastal Marine Macroalgae 519
15.4 Influences on Bloom Development 525
15.5 Nutrient Pollution 525
15.5.1 Sources 525
15.5.2 Indicators of Nutrient Pollution and Nutrient Sources 526
15.6 Uptake/Adsorption of Other Contaminants 526
15.7 Impacts on Human Health: Macroalgae as Substrata for Pathogens 527
15.8 Non-native Invasions 528
15.9 Ecological and Ecosystem-Level Impacts 529
15.9.1 Regime Shifts 530
15.9.2 Freshwater Macroalgal HAB 532
15.9.2.1 Filamentous Cyanobacteria 532
15.9.2.2 Filamentous Green Algae 533
15.9.3 Estuarine and Coastal Marine HAB 534
15.10 Effects of Blooms on the Chemistry of the Oceans and the Atmosphere 535
15.10.1 Changes to Carbonate Chemistry and pH 535
15.10.2 Release of Materials and Chemicals into Seawater 536
15.10.3 Release of Volatile Compounds 537
15.11 Management Strategies 537
15.12 Economic Impacts 539
15.13 Recycling Macroalgae Biomass 541
15.14 Forecast 542
References and Further Reading 542
16 Harmful Algal Species Fact Sheets 561
Alexandrium 563
Allan D. Cembella
Amphidomataceae 575
Urban Tillmann
Aureococcus anophagefferens Hargraves et Sieburth & Aureoumbra lagunensis DeYoe et Stockwell – Brown Tides 583
Christopher J. Gobler
Ceratium furca (Ehrenberg) Claparede & Lachmann 585
Steve L. Morton
Chattonella marina 587
Carmelo R. Tomas
Cochlodinium – Rust Tide 589
Christopher J. Gobler
Cyanobacteria 591
JoAnn M. Burkholder, Christopher J. Gobler, and Judith M. O’Neil
Dinophysis 597
Steve L. Morton
Fibrocapsa japonica 599
Carmelo R. Tomas
Gambierdiscus 601
Michael L. Parsons, Mindy L. Richlen, and Alison Robertson
Gymnodinium catenatum 605
Allan D. Cembella and Christine J. Band-Schmidt
Heterosigma akashiwo 613
Carmelo R. Tomas
Karenia brevis (Davis) Hansen et Moestrup – Florida Red Tide 615
Larry E. Brand
Ostreopsis 617
Michael L. Parsons, Mindy L. Richlen, and Alison Robertson
Pfiesteria piscicida Steidinger & Burkholder and Pfiesteria shumwayae Glasgow & Burkholder 621
JoAnn M. Burkholder and Harold G. Marshall
Prorocentrum 625
Patricia M. Glibert and JoAnn M. Burkholder
Prymnesium parvum (Carter) – “Golden Algae” 629
Daniel L. Roelke and Schonna R. Manning
Pseudo-nitzschia – seriata group; delicatissima group 633
Raphael Kudela
Takayama 637
Larry E. Brand
Appendix 1 Websites That Routinely Distribute Bulletins on the Presence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) for Public Health 639
Appendix 2 State Agencies Providing Information and Updates on Toxic and Harmful Algal Blooms and Water Quality 641
Appendix 3 List of General Web Resources 645
Index 647
