Revised to reflect the most recent developments in food safety, the second edition of Food Safety for the 21st Century offers practitioners an authoritative text that contains the essentials of food safety management in the global supply chain. The authors - noted experts in the field - reveal how to design, implement and maintain a stellar food safety programme. The book contains industry best-practices that can help businesses to improve their systems and accelerate the application of world-class food safety systems. The authors outline the key food safety considerations for individuals, businesses and organisations involved in today’s complex global food supply chains.
The text contains the information needed to recognise food safety hazards, design safe products and processes and identify and manage effectively the necessary control mechanisms within the food business. The authors also include a detailed discussion of current issues and key challenges in the global food supply chain. This important guide:
- Offers a thorough review of the various aspects of food safety and considers how to put in place an excellent food safety system
- Contains the information on HACCP appropriate for all practitioners in the world-wide food supply chain
- Assists new and existing business to meet their food safety goals and responsibilities
- Includes illustrative examples of current thinking and challenges to food safety management and recommendations for making improvements to systems and practices
Written for food safety managers, researchers and regulators worldwide, this revised guide offers a comprehensive text and an excellent reference for developing, implementing and maintaining world-class food safety programmes and shows how to protect and defend the food supply chain from threats.
Table of Contents
About the Authors xvii
Foreword xix
Acknowledgements xxi
Glossary of Terms and Acronyms xxiii
How to Use This Book xxix
Part I Food Safety Challenges in the 21st Century 1
1 Origin and Evolution of theModern Systemof Food Safety Management: HACCP and Prerequisite Programmes 3
1.1 Historical Perspectives 3
1.2 Origin and Evolution of HACCP 5
1.3 The Necessity of Prerequisite Programmes 11
1.4 Recent Regulatory Developments in the United States 11
1.5 The Future of HACCP 12
1.6 Conclusions 13
2 Lessons Learned from Food Safety Successes and Failures 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Benefits of Using HACCP: Lessons Learned from a Successful Implementation 15
2.3 Misconceptions or ‘Failure to Understand HACCP‘ 18
2.4 Barriers to Effective HACCP Use 20
2.5 Reasons for Failure 22
2.5.1 Lessons Learned from Major Food Safety Events 22
2.5.2 Commonly Observed Mistakes in the Implementation of HACCP and Management of Food Safety Programmes 28
2.6 Difficulties with Applying HACCP through the Entire Food Supply Chain 30
2.7 Roles and Responsibilities: Lessons Learned 32
2.7.1 Industry 33
2.7.2 Government 33
2.7.3 Retailers/Foodservice Establishments 34
2.7.4 Trade and Professional Associations 34
2.7.5 Academia 35
2.7.6 Consumers 35
2.7.7 The Media 36
2.7.8 Advocacy and Pressure Groups 36
2.7.9 Influencers and Experts 37
2.8 Conclusions 37
3 Food Safety Challenges in the Global Supply Chain 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Increased Complexity of the Global Supply Chain 41
3.2.1 Economic Factors 41
3.2.2 Environmental Factors 43
3.2.3 Social Factors 47
3.3 Food Safety Issues in Global Trade 49
3.3.1 Lack of Uniformity in Regulations and Requirements 52
3.3.2 Lack of Uniformity in Standards and Audit Requirements 54
3.4 Strategic Level Responses 55
3.4.1 Government Communications Systems 55
3.4.2 Global Food Safety Private Audit Standards and Schemes 56
3.4.3 Verification and Auditor Competency 57
3.4.4 Global Food Traceability Systems 57
3.4.5 Public-Private Partnerships 57
3.4.6 FoodWaste Reduction through Labelling Improvements 58
3.5 Tactical Level Responses 58
3.5.1 Supplier Audits and Approvals 59
3.5.2 Business Continuity Planning 60
3.5.3 Sharing Technology 60
3.5.4 Shared Training and Education Resources 61
3.5.5 Increased Awareness of Emerging Issues 61
3.6 Conclusions 61
4 The Future of Food Safety and HACCP in a ChangingWorld 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Food Safety Issues 64
4.2.1 Emerging Pathogens 64
4.2.2 Changes in Distribution of Pathogens 65
4.2.3 Additional Control Measures 65
4.2.4 Antibiotic-Resistant Pathogens 65
4.2.5 Allergens 65
4.2.6 Other Chemical Hazards 66
4.2.7 Physical Hazards 66
4.2.8 Economically Motivated Contamination 66
4.3 Technology Advancements: Processing and Laboratories 67
4.4 Food Safety Management 68
4.4.1 HACCP Preliminary Steps and Principles 68
4.4.2 Additions to Current Prerequisite Programmes (Codex Principles of Food Hygiene) 70
4.4.3 The Human Factor 70
4.4.4 Global Food Safety Assurance 74
4.5 Changes in Thinking/Policy Making 78
4.5.1 Food Safety Objectives 78
4.5.2 End Product Testing 79
4.5.3 Hazard Analysis versus Risk Assessment 79
4.6 Conclusions 80
Part II Foodborne Hazards and Their Control 81
5 Recognising Food Safety Hazards 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.1.1 What is a Food Safety Hazard? 83
5.1.2 What is not a Food Safety Hazard? 83
5.2 Biological Hazards 84
5.2.1 Epidemiology and Morbidity Statistics 84
5.2.2 Characteristics of Foodborne Illnesses 86
5.2.3 Bacterial Pathogens: Special Considerations and Features 91
5.2.4 Viral Pathogens 94
5.2.5 Prions 96
5.2.6 Protozoan Parasites 98
5.2.7 ParasiticWorms 98
5.2.8 Biological Hazards, Zoonoses, and Food Chain Biosecurity Issues 98
5.3 Chemical Hazards 99
5.3.1 Allergens 99
5.3.2 Mycotoxins 100
5.3.3 Marine Foodborne Toxins 101
5.3.4 GeneticallyModified (GM) Foods 101
5.3.5 Antibiotics 102
5.3.6 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) 102
5.3.7 Heavy Metals 103
5.3.8 Chemicals Used in Food Processing Environments 104
5.3.9 Chemicals Used in Food Packaging Materials 104
5.3.10 Unanticipated Potential Chemical Hazards 104
5.4 Physical Hazards 105
5.4.1 Sources of Foreign Material 105
5.4.2 Injuries Associated with Physical Hazards 106
5.5 Conclusions 106
6 Designing Safety into a Food Product 107
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Formulation Intrinsic Control Factors 107
6.2.1 Water Activity 108
6.2.2 pH 110
6.2.3 Chemical Food Preservatives 111
6.2.4 Oxidation-Reduction Potential 115
6.2.5 Interactions between Preservative Factors 116
6.3 Use of Experimental Design and Analysis 118
6.3.1 Challenge Testing 118
6.3.2 Accelerated Shelf Life Testing 121
6.3.3 Predictive Microbiology and Mathematical Modelling 122
6.3.4 Theory versus Reality 123
6.4 Ingredient Considerations 123
6.4.1 High-Risk Ingredients 124
6.4.2 Novel Ingredients 126
6.5 Considering the ‘Unintended’ Use 126
6.6 Conclusions 127
7 Designing a Safe Food Process 129
7.1 Introduction 129
7.2 Process Control of Microbiological Hazards 130
7.2.1 Destruction of Microorganisms 130
7.2.2 Prevention of Microbial Growth 137
7.2.3 Prevention of Contamination 140
7.3 Process Control of Chemical Hazards 143
7.3.1 Allergen Control 143
7.3.2 White Powder Control 144
7.3.3 Cleaning and Maintenance Chemicals 144
7.4 Process Control of Physical Hazards 145
7.4.1 Exclusion Techniques 145
7.4.2 Removal Techniques 146
7.4.3 Detection Techniques 147
7.5 Conclusion 147
Part III Systematic Food Safety Management in Practice 149
8 Overview of aWorld-Class Food Safety Programme 151
8.1 Introduction 151
8.2 Preliminary Concepts and Definitions 152
8.2.1 The EvolvingWorld-Class Food Safety Programme 152
8.2.2 Key Definitions of Relevance toWorld-Class Food Safety Programmes 153
8.3 World-Class Food Safety Programmes: System Elements 155
8.3.1 Safe Product/Process Design 155
8.3.2 Prerequisite Programmes 156
8.3.3 HACCP 156
8.3.4 Food Fraud and Food Defence 156
8.4 World-Class Food Safety Programmes: Fundamental Supporting Elements 157
8.4.1 Essential Management Practices 157
8.4.2 Food Safety Culture 158
8.5 World-Class Food Safety Programmes: Further Supporting Elements 158
8.6 World-Class Food Safety Programmes in the Global Food Supply Chain 159
8.7 Continuous Improvement of theWorld-Class Food Safety Programme 160
8.8 Conclusions 161
9 Building the Foundations of a World-Class Food Safety Management Programme: Essential Steps and Practices 163
9.1 Introduction 163
9.2 Essential Management Practices 165
9.2.1 Management Commitment and its Role in Food Safety Culture 165
9.2.2 Assignment of Roles and Responsibilities 166
9.2.3 Training and Education 166
9.2.4 Resource Management 172
9.2.5 Documentation 173
9.2.6 Supplier/Customer Partnerships 173
9.2.7 Continuous Improvement 173
9.3 Food Safety Culture 174
9.4 Preparation Activities for Food Safety Programmes 175
9.4.1 Preparing a Project Plan 175
9.4.2 Structure the HACCP Programme 176
9.4.3 Carry out a Gap Assessment 176
9.5 Prioritisation of Corrective Actions 183
9.6 Conclusions 185
10 Formalised Prerequisite Programmes in Practice 187
10.1 Introduction 187
10.2 Prerequisite Definitions and Standards 188
10.3 Prerequisite Programmes: The Essentials 189
10.3.1 Primary Production 189
10.3.2 Establishment: Design and Facilities 192
10.3.3 Control of Operation 194
10.3.4 Establishment: Maintenance and Sanitation 198
10.3.5 Establishment: Personal Hygiene 206
10.3.6 Transportation 207
10.3.7 Product Information and Consumer Awareness 207
10.3.8 Training 209
10.4 Prerequisite Programmes and Operational Prerequisites 210
10.5 Validation and Verification of Prerequisite Programmes 212
10.6 Further Reading on Prerequisite Programmes 213
10.7 Conclusions 214
11 Conducting a Product Safety Assessment 215
11.1 Introduction 215
11.1.1 Who Is Involved in Product Safety Assessments? 215
11.1.2 Timing of the Product Safety Assessment Process 217
11.1.3 Product Safety Assessment Process 217
11.2 Training for Research and Development Personnel 218
11.3 Example of a Product Safety Assessment 219
11.3.1 Process Flow Diagram 221
11.4 Conclusions and Principles for Effective Product Safety Assessment 223
12 Developing and Implementing a HACCP Plan 225
12.1 Introduction 225
12.2 Preliminary Concepts 226
12.2.1 HACCP Principles 226
12.2.2 The HACCP Plan and Documentation Approaches 226
12.2.3 HACCP Application Process 228
12.2.4 Codex Logic Sequence 228
12.3 Applying the Codex Logic Sequence to Develop a HACCP Plan 230
12.3.1 HACCP Study Terms of Reference and Scope 230
12.3.2 Codex Logic Sequence Step 1: HACCP Teams 230
12.3.3 Codex Logic Sequence Step 2: Product/Process Descriptions 232
12.3.4 Codex Logic Sequence Step 3: Identify Intended Use 233
12.3.5 Codex Logic Sequence Step 4: Construct Process Flow Diagram(s) 234
12.3.6 Codex Logic Sequence Step 5: On-Site Confirmation of Flow Diagram 237
12.3.7 Codex Logic Sequence Step 6: List All Potential Hazards, Conduct a Hazard Analysis, and Consider Control Measures (Apply HACCP Principle 1) 238
12.3.8 Codex Logic Sequence Step 7: Determine CCPs (HACCP Principle 2) 249
12.3.9 Codex Logic Sequence Step 8: Establish Critical Limits for each CCP (HACCP Principle 3) 252
12.3.10 Codex Logic Sequence Step 9: Establish a Monitoring System for each CCP (HACCP Principle 4) 252
12.3.11 Codex Logic Sequence Step 10: Establish Corrective Actions (HACCP Principle 5) 255
12.3.12 Codex Logic Sequence Step 11: Establish Verification Procedures (HACCP Principle 6) 255
12.3.13 Codex Logic Sequence Step 12: Establish Documentation and RecordKeeping (HACCP Principle 7) 257
12.4 Implementing a HACCP Plan 257
12.4.1 Activities for Implementation of a HACCP Plan 257
12.4.2 The Validated HACCP Plan 258
12.4.3 Implementation Action Planning 259
12.4.4 Training 259
12.4.5 CCP Management Systems 261
12.4.6 HACCP Required Activities 262
12.4.7 Verification of Implementation 263
12.4.8 Handover to Operations Staff 263
12.4.9 Considerations for Implementing Updates and Changes to an Existing HACCP System 263
12.5 Conclusions 264
13 Food Fraud and Food Defence 265
13.1 Introduction 265
13.2 Essential Definitions 265
13.2.1 Food Fraud 266
13.2.2 Food Terrorism 266
13.2.3 Food Defence 267
13.2.4 Food Protection 267
13.3 Food Fraud 268
13.3.1 The Food Fraud Problem 268
13.3.2 Learning from Examples of Food Fraud 269
13.4 Food Terrorism 275
13.4.1 Food Terrorism Examples 275
13.5 Food Defence 276
13.5.1 Food Fraud Prediction 276
13.5.2 Practical Food Defence Strategies 279
13.6 Conclusion 282
14 Maintaining and Improving a Food Safety Programme 283
14.1 Introduction 283
14.2 What Is Food Safety Programme Maintenance? 283
14.3 Responsibility for Food Safety Programme Maintenance 285
14.4 Maintenance of Prerequisite Programme Elements 285
14.5 Maintenance of HACCP System Elements 286
14.5.1 HACCP Verification Activities 286
14.5.2 HACCP Maintenance Activities 287
14.6 Maintenance of Food Fraud and Food Defence Systems 288
14.7 Use of Audit for Successful Food Safety System Maintenance 289
14.7.1 Audit Definitions 289
14.7.2 The Auditor and Audit Skills 290
14.7.3 Audit Checklists 292
14.7.4 Use of External Audit and Certification Schemes as Part of Food Safety Programme Maintenance 293
14.8 Incident Management 294
14.9 Conclusions 294
15 Food Safety Culture: Evaluate, Map, and Mature 297
Lone Jespersen, Ph.D.
15.1 Introduction 297
15.1.1 Food Safety Culture: Accepted Assumptions, Not Malicious Intent 297
15.1.2 Essential Definitions 298
15.2 Supply Chain and Critical Food Safety Behaviours 298
15.2.1 Dimensions of Food Safety Culture 300
15.2.2 Follow the Leafy Greens… 300
15.3 Organisational Culture and Food Safety 302
15.4 Evaluate and Map Food Safety Maturity 303
15.4.1 Map to Food Safety Maturity 303
15.4.2 Walking the Food Safety Talk 303
15.4.3 Importance of Using Multiple Methods to Evaluate Food Safety Culture 307
15.5 Tactics to Mature Food Safety Culture 309
15.6 Conclusions 310
Part IV Food Safety Management in Practice: Current Issues and Challenges in Areas of the Global Food Supply Chain 313
16 Food Safety in Agriculture: Determining Farm-Derived Food Safety Risk 315
Louise Manning and Pieternel Luning
16.1 Introduction 315
16.2 Notions of Food Quality and Food Safety 315
16.3 Value as a Food Attribute in Primary Agriculture 316
16.3.1 Case Study 1: BSE and the United Kingdom 318
16.4 Uncertainty and Ambiguity Affecting Risk Perceptions and Decisions 319
16.4.1 Case Study 2: Red Tractor Standards 320
16.5 Risks Inherent to Farmers’ Context Characteristics 320
16.5.1 Case Study 3: Quality Egg 325
16.6 Supply Chain Governance and Food Safety 326
16.7 Risk Mitigation at Farm Level 327
16.8 Conclusion 329
17 Helping to Overcome Food Safety Challenges in Developing Markets 331
17.1 Introduction 331
17.2 Sri Lanka Hygiene and Management Systems Development Projects 332
17.2.1 Context 332
17.2.2 Support for the Development and Implementation of Environmental Management Plans 332
17.2.3 A Manufacturer of Dairy-Based Curd and Popsicles 334
17.2.4 A Small Packaging Manufacturer in Sri Lanka 336
17.2.5 A Small Dairy (Ice-Cream) Processor 337
17.2.6 A Coconut Processor in Sri Lanka 339
17.2.7 Quality and GMP Training in Sri Lanka 340
17.3 Rwanda Dairy Development Projects 342
17.3.1 Context 342
17.3.2 A Growing Dairy Company in Northern Rwanda 342
17.3.3 Yogurt and Fermented Milk Processor 343
17.4 Bangladesh Milk Supply Chain Development Project 346
17.4.1 Context 346
17.4.2 Project 347
17.4.3 Insights and Lessons Learned 347
17.5 Key Points Learned as Assignees to a Less-Developed Country 348
17.6 Kenya Development Project: InternationalWater and Health Alliance (IWHA) 349
17.6.1 Context 349
17.6.2 Challenges in Low-Income Countries 350
17.6.3 Addressing theWater-Testing Challenge in Low-Income Countries 351
17.6.4 Accomplishments 352
17.7 Conclusions 353
18 Consumer Food Safety 355
18.1 Introduction 355
18.2 Potential Hazards 356
18.3 Potential Control Measures 357
18.3.1 SafeWater and Raw Materials 357
18.3.2 Refrigeration 358
18.3.3 Heating (Cooking) 358
18.3.4 Separation, Cleaning, Sanitation, and Personal Hygiene 359
18.4 Potential CCPs and Preventive Controls (PCs) in the Home 360
18.5 Consumer Education 360
18.6 Good Consumer Practices (GCPs) 361
18.7 Case Studies 364
18.7.1 Fictional Case Study: Microbiological Food Safety 364
18.7.2 Real Life Case Study: Allergen Food Safety 366
18.8 Conclusion 369
19 Food Safety in Foodservice Operations 371
19.1 Introduction 371
19.2 Mapping the Foodservice Landscape 372
19.3 Quick-Service Restaurants 376
19.3.1 Challenges in Quick-Service Chain Restaurants 376
19.3.2 Ongoing Control of Food Safety in Quick-Serve Restaurants 378
19.4 Institutional Catering 380
19.5 Foodservice SMEs: Owner-led Restaurants, Cafés, and Snack Bars 381
19.6 Fine Dining, Star Ratings, and Celebrity Chefs 383
19.7 Mobile Foodservice: Market Stalls, Food Vans/Trucks, Festivals, and Pop-Up Facilities 385
19.8 Conclusions 386
Epilogue 387
References 391
Appendix 1 Manufacturing HACCP Case Study 417
Appendix 2 Global Food Safety Resources 439
Index 443
