The most comprehensive reference on fluorescent nanodiamond physical and chemical properties and contemporary applications
Fluorescent nanodiamonds (FNDs) have drawn a great deal of attention over the past several years, and their applications and development potential are proving to be manifold and vast. The first and only book of its kind, Fluorescent Nanodiamonds is a comprehensive guide to the basic science and technical information needed to fully understand the fundamentals of FNDs and their potential applications across an array of domains. In demonstrating the importance of FNDs in biological applications, the authors bring together all relevant chemistry, physics, materials science and biology.
Nanodiamonds are produced by powerful cataclysmic events such as explosions, volcanic eruptions and meteorite impacts. They also can be created in the lab by high-pressure high-temperature treatment of graphite or detonating an explosive in a reactor vessel. A single imperfection can give a nanodiamond a specific, isolated color center which allows it to function as a single, trapped atom. Much smaller than the thickness of a human hair, a nanodiamond can have a huge surface area that allows it to bond with a variety of other materials. Because of their non-toxicity, nanodiamonds may be useful in biomedical applications, such as drug delivery and gene therapy.
- The most comprehensive reference on a topic of rapidly increasing interest among academic and industrial researchers across an array of fields
- Includes numerous case studies and practical examples from many areas of research and industrial applications, as well as fascinating and instructive historical perspectives
- Each chapter addresses, in-depth, a single integral topic including the fundamental properties, synthesis, mechanisms and functionalisation of FNDs
- The first book published by the key patent holder with his research group in the field of FNDs
Fluorescent Nanodiamonds is an important working resource for a broad range of scientists and engineers in industry and academia. It will also be a welcome reference for instructors in chemistry, physics, materials science, biology and related fields.
Table of Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xv
Part I Basics 1
1 Introduction to Nanotechnology 3
1.1 Nanotechnology: From Large to Small 3
1.1.1 Feynman: Plenty of Room at the Bottom 3
1.1.2 Nanotechnology Today 6
1.1.3 The Bottom‐Up Approach 7
1.2 Nanocarbons: Now and Then 8
1.2.1 Classification 9
1.2.2 Fullerenes 9
1.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 11
1.2.4 Graphenes 13
References 15
2 Nanodiamonds 19
2.1 Ah, Diamonds, Eternal Beautiful 19
2.2 Diamonds: From Structure to Classification 22
2.2.1 Structure 22
2.2.2 Classification 24
2.3 Diamond Synthesis 26
2.3.1 HPHT 27
2.3.2 CVD 29
2.3.3 Detonation 30
2.4 Nanodiamonds: A Scientist’s Best Friend 30
References 33
3 Color Centers in Diamond 37
3.1 Nitrogen Impurities 37
3.2 Crystal Defects 40
3.3 Vacancy‐Related Color Centers 41
3.3.1 GR1 and ND1 41
3.3.2 NV0 and NV− 44
3.3.3 H3 and N3 46
3.3.4 SiV− 46
3.4 The NV− Center 47
References 50
4 Surface Chemistry of Nanodiamonds 55
4.1 Functionalization 56
4.2 Bioconjugation 61
4.2.1 Noncovalent Conjugation 61
4.2.2 Covalent Conjugation 64
4.3 Encapsulation 66
4.3.1 Lipid Layers 66
4.3.2 Silica Shells 67
References 69
5 Biocompatibility of Nanodiamonds 73
5.1 Biocompatibility Testing 73
5.1.1 Cytotoxicity 74
5.1.2 Genotoxicity 76
5.1.3 Hemocompatibility 76
5.2 In Vitro Studies 77
5.2.1 HPHT‐ND 77
5.2.2 DND 80
5.3 Ex Vivo Studies 82
5.4 In Vivo Studies 83
References 86
Part II Specific Topics 91
6 Producing Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 93
6.1 Production 93
6.1.1 Theoretical Simulations 93
6.1.2 Electron/Ion Irradiation 96
6.1.3 Size Reduction 99
6.2 Characterization 101
6.2.1 Fluorescence Intensity 101
6.2.2 Electron Spin Resonance 104
6.2.3 Fluorescence Lifetime 105
6.2.4 Magnetically Modulated Fluorescence 107
References 110
7 Single Particle Detection and Tracking 113
7.1 Single Particle Detection 113
7.1.1 Photostability 113
7.1.2 Spectroscopic Properties 117
7.1.3 Color Center Numbers 118
7.2 Single Particle Tracking 120
7.2.1 Tracking in Solution 120
7.2.2 Tracking in Cells 122
7.2.3 Tracking in Organisms 127
References 130
8 Cell Labeling and Fluorescence Imaging 135
8.1 Cell Labeling 135
8.1.1 Nonspecific Labeling 136
8.1.2 Specific Labeling 139
8.2 Fluorescence Imaging 142
8.2.1 Epifluorescence and Confocal Fluorescence 142
8.2.2 Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence 144
8.2.3 Two‐Photon Excitation Fluorescence 146
8.2.4 Time‐Gated Fluorescence 147
References 150
9 Cell Tracking and Deep Tissue Imaging 155
9.1 Cellular Uptake 155
9.1.1 Uptake Mechanism 155
9.1.2 Entrapment 158
9.1.3 Quantification 159
9.2 Cell Tracking 161
9.2.1 Tracking In Vitro 161
9.2.2 Tracking In Vivo 163
9.3 Deep Tissue Imaging 165
9.3.1 Wide‐Field Fluorescence Imaging 165
9.3.2 Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance Imaging 169
9.3.3 Time‐Gated Fluorescence Imaging 170
9.3.4 Magnetically Modulated Fluorescence Imaging 170
References 171
10 Nanoscopic Imaging 175
10.1 Diffraction Barrier 176
10.2 Superresolution Fluorescence Imaging 177
10.2.1 Stimulated Emission Depletion Microscopy 177
10.2.2 Saturated Excitation Fluorescence Microscopy 181
10.2.3 Deterministic Emitter Switch Microscopy 182
10.2.4 Tip‐Enhanced Fluorescence Microscopy 183
10.3 Cathodoluminescence Imaging 184
10.4 Correlative Light‐Electron Microscopy 188
References 191
11 Nanoscale Quantum Sensing 195
11.1 The Spin Hamiltonian 196
11.2 Temperature Sensing 197
11.2.1 Ultrahigh Precision Temperature Measurement 197
11.2.2 Time‐Resolved Nanothermometry 200
11.2.3 All‐Optical Luminescence Nanothermometry 203
11.2.4 Scanning Thermal Imaging 205
11.3 Magnetic Sensing 207
11.3.1 Continuous‐Wave Detection 207
11.3.2 Relaxometry 210
References 211
12 Hybrid Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 215
12.1 Silica/Diamond Nanohybrids 215
12.2 Gold/Diamond Nanohybrids 217
12.2.1 Photoluminescence Enhancement 217
12.2.2 Dual‐Modality Imaging 218
12.2.3 Hyperlocalized Hyperthermia 220
12.2.4 NV‐Based Nanothermometry 224
12.3 Silver/Diamond Nanohybrids 226
12.4 Iron Oxide/Diamond Nanohybrids 228
12.4.1 Single‐Domain Magnetization 228
12.4.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 229
References 232
13 Nanodiamond‐Enabled Medicine 235
13.1 NDs as Therapeutic Carriers 236
13.2 Drug Delivery 237
13.2.1 Small Molecules 237
13.2.2 Proteins 241
13.3 Gene Therapy 244
13.3.1 RNA 244
13.3.2 DNA 245
13.4 Animal Experiments 247
References 249
14 Diamonds in the Sky 253
14.1 Unidentified Infrared Emission 253
14.2 Extended Red Emission 258
14.3 Cosmic Events at Home on Earth 264
References 267
Further Reading 271
Index 273
