This book reviews the state of the art in research and development of lead-free interconnect materials for electronic packaging technology. It identifies the technical barriers to the development and manufacture of high-temperature interconnect materials to investigate into the complexities introduced by harsh conditions. It teaches the techniques adopted and the possible alternatives of interconnect materials to cope with the impacts of extreme temperatures for implementing at industrial scale. The book also examines the application of nanomaterials, current trends within the topic area, and the potential environmental impacts of material usage.
Written by world-renowned experts from academia and industry, Harsh Environment Electronics: Interconnect Materials and Performance Assessment covers interconnect materials based on silver, gold, and zinc alloys as well as advanced approaches utilizing polymers and nanomaterials in the first section. The second part is devoted to the performance assessment of the different interconnect materials and their respective environmental impact.
-Takes a scientific approach to analyzing and addressing the issues related to interconnect materials involved in high temperature electronics
-Reviews all relevant materials used in interconnect technology as well as alternative approaches otherwise neglected in other literature
-Highlights emergent research and theoretical concepts in the implementation of different materials in soldering and die-attach applications
-Covers wide-bandgap semiconductor device technologies for high temperature and harsh environment applications, transient liquid phase bonding, glass frit based die attach solution for harsh environment, and more
-A pivotal reference for professionals, engineers, students, and researchers
Harsh Environment Electronics: Interconnect Materials and Performance Assessment is aimed at materials scientists, electrical engineers, and semiconductor physicists, and treats this specialized topic with breadth and depth.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
1 Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor Device Technologies for High-Temperature and Harsh Environment Applications 1
Md. Rafiqul Islam, Roisul H. Galib,Montajar Sarkar, and Shaestagir Chowdhury
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Crystal Structures and Fundamental Properties of Different Wide-Bandgap Semiconductors 3
1.2.1 Relevant Properties of GaN, SiC, and Si 3
1.2.2 Structure of SiC 3
1.2.2.1 Polytypism in SiC 3
1.2.2.2 Modification of SiC Structures with Dopant 6
1.2.3 III-V Nitride-Based Structure 6
1.2.3.1 Fundamental Properties of GaN and AlN 7
1.2.3.2 Nitride Crystal Growth 7
1.2.3.3 Polytypism in the III-V Nitrides 8
1.2.3.4 Electrical Properties of Undoped Nitride Thin films 9
1.2.3.5 Properties of Doped GaN 9
1.2.4 Alloys and Heterostructures 10
1.2.4.1 GaInN 10
1.3 Devices ofWide-Bandgap Semiconductors 10
1.3.1 SiC in Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs) 10
1.3.1.1 Specific Contact Resistance (𝜌c) 11
1.3.2 SiC in Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 12
1.3.2.1 1200-V, 60-A SiC Power Module MOSFET 12
1.3.2.2 Design of the 1200-V, 60-A Phase-leg Module 13
1.3.2.3 Blocking Capability 14
1.3.2.4 Static Characteristics 15
1.3.2.5 Transfer Characteristics 15
1.3.2.6 Evaluation of the Gate Oxide Stability 16
1.3.3 Six-Pack SiC MOSFET Modules Paralleled in a Half-Bridge Configuration 16
1.3.4 4H-SiC Metal Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MESFET) for Integrated Circuits (ICs) 18
1.3.4.1 Design of 4H-SiC MESFET 18
1.3.4.2 I-V Characteristics 19
1.3.5 SiC Capacitive Pressure Sensor 20
1.3.5.1 Sensor Characteristics at High Temperature 21
1.3.6 Ni2+-doped ZnO as Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors (DMSs) 22
1.3.6.1 Saturation Magnetization (Ms) at High Temperatures 22
1.3.6.2 The Coercivity (Hc) and Effective MagneticMoment (𝜇eff) at High Temperatures 23
1.3.7 Thermomechanical Stability of SiC, GaN, AlN, ZnO, and ZnSe 24
1.4 Conclusion 25
References 26
2 High-Temperature Lead-free Solder Materials and Applications 31
Mohd F. M. Sabri, Bakhtiar Ali, and Suhana M. Said
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 High-Temperature Solder Applications 32
2.2.1 Die-Attach Material 32
2.2.2 BGA Technology 33
2.2.3 Flip-Chip Technology 34
2.2.4 MCM Technology 34
2.2.5 CSP Technology 35
2.3 Requirements for a Candidate Solder in High-temperature Applications 35
2.4 High-Pb-Content Solders 37
2.5 Zn-Based Solders 38
2.5.1 Zn-Al 38
2.5.2 Zn-Sn 39
2.6 Bi-Based Solders 42
2.6.1 Bi-Ag 42
2.6.2 Bi-Sb 44
2.7 Au-Based Solders 47
2.7.1 Au-Sn 47
2.7.2 Au-Ge 49
2.8 Sn-Based Solders 51
2.8.1 Sn-Sb 51
2.8.2 Sn-Ag-Cu/Sn-Cu/Sn-Ag 53
2.9 Conclusion and Future Research Directions 56
References 60
3 Role of Alloying Addition in Zn-Based Pb-Free Solders 67
Khairul Islam and Ahmed Sharif
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Zn-Al-Based Solders 68
3.3 Zn-Sn-Based Solders 75
3.4 Zn-Based Alloys with Minor Addition 80
3.5 Zn-Ni-Based Solders 81
3.6 Zn-Mg-Based Solders 82
3.7 Zn-In-Based Solders 83
3.8 Zn-Ag-Based Solders 84
3.9 Conclusion 84
Acknowledgment 85
References 85
4 Effect of Cooling Rate on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Creep Resistance of a Cast Zn-Al-Mg High-temperature Lead-Free Solder Alloy 91
Reza Mahmudi, Davood Farasheh, and Seyyed S. Biriaie
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Experimental Procedures 93
4.2.1 Materials and Processing 93
4.2.2 Mechanical Property Measurements 93
4.3 Results and Discussion 94
4.3.1 Shear Strength and Hardness 94
4.3.2 Microstructural Observations 97
4.3.3 Impression Creep 100
4.3.4 Creep Mechanisms 103
4.3.5 Microstructure-Property Relationships 110
4.4 Conclusions 111
References 112
5 Development of Zn-Al-xNi Lead-Free Solders for High-Temperature Applications 115
Sanjoy Mallick, Md Sharear Kabir, and Ahmed Sharif
5.1 Introduction 115
5.2 Experimental 116
5.3 Results and Discussions 118
5.4 Conclusions 130
Acknowledgments 131
References 131
6 Study of Zn-Mg-Ag High-Temperature Solder Alloys 135
Roisul H. Galib, Md. Ashif Anwar, and Ahmed Sharif
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 Materials and Methods 136
6.3 Results and Discussions 137
6.3.1 Chemical Composition 137
6.3.2 Microstructural Analysis 137
6.3.3 Mechanical Properties 141
6.3.4 Electrical Properties 142
6.3.5 Thermal Properties 142
6.4 Conclusions 143
Acknowledgments 144
References 144
7 Characterization of Zn-Mo and Zn-Cr Pb-Free Composite Solders as a Potential Replacement for Pb-Containing Solders 147
Khairul Islam and Ahmed Sharif
7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 Experimental 149
7.3 Results and Discussion 150
7.3.1 Zn-xMo System 150
7.3.1.1 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) 150
7.3.1.2 Microstructure of Zn-xMo System 151
7.3.1.3 Brinell Hardness 153
7.3.1.4 Tensile Strength 153
7.3.1.5 Tensile Fracture Surface Analysis 154
7.3.1.6 TMA Analysis 154
7.3.1.7 Electrical Conductivity Analysis 156
7.3.2 Zn-xCr System 156
7.3.2.1 Differential Thermal Analysis 156
7.3.2.2 Microstructure of Zn-xCr System 157
7.3.2.3 Brinell Hardness 158
7.3.2.4 Tensile Strength 159
7.3.2.5 Fracture Surface Analysis 160
7.3.2.6 TMA Analysis 160
7.3.2.7 Electrical Conductivity Analysis 162
7.3.3 Comparison of Zn-xMo and Zn-xCr Solders with Conventional Solders 162
7.4 Conclusion 163
Acknowledgments 163
References 164
8 Gold-Based Interconnect Systems for High-Temperature and Harsh Environments 167
Ayesha Akter, Ahmed Sharif, and Rubayyat Mahbub
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 High-Temperature Solder System 168
8.2.1 Au as High-Temperature Solder 169
8.3 Various Au-Based Solder Systems 169
8.3.1 Au-Sn System 170
8.3.1.1 Au-Rich Side of the Au-Sn System 171
8.3.1.2 Sn-Rich Side of the Au-Sn System 172
8.3.2 Au-Ge System 174
8.3.3 Au-In System 176
8.3.4 Au-Si System 177
8.4 Other Interconnecting Systems 178
8.4.1 Wire Bonding 178
8.4.2 Au-enriched SLID 179
8.4.3 Nanoparticle-Stabilized Composite Solder 180
8.4.4 Solderable Coatings 181
8.5 Applications 182
8.5.1 Electronic Connectors 182
8.5.2 Optoelectronic Connectors 182
8.5.3 Medical Field 183
8.5.4 Jewelry 183
8.5.5 Au Stud Bump 184
8.6 Substitutes for Au and Reductions in Use 184
8.7 Future Uses of Au 185
8.8 Conclusions 185
Acknowledgments 185
References 185
9 Bi-Based Interconnect Systems and Applications 191
Manifa Noor and Ahmed Sharif
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Various Bi-Based Solder Systems 192
9.2.1 Bi-Ag Alloys 192
9.2.2 Bi-Sb Alloy 196
9.2.3 Bi-Sb-Cu Alloy 198
9.2.4 Bi-Cu-Based Alloys 199
9.2.5 Bi-Sn 201
9.2.6 Bi-La 204
9.2.7 Bi-Based Transient Liquid Phase Bonding 204
9.2.8 Bi-Based Composite System 205
9.3 Conclusion 206
Acknowledgments 206
References 206
10 Recent Advancement of Research in Silver-Based Solder Alloys 211
Ahmed Sharif
10.1 Introduction 211
10.2 Overview of Different Ag-Based Systems 213
10.2.1 Ag Pastes 213
10.2.1.1 Micron-Ag Paste 213
10.2.1.2 Nano-Ag Paste 215
10.2.1.3 Hybrid Silver Pastes 216
10.2.1.4 Ag-Based Bimetallic Paste 217
10.2.1.5 Composite Micron-Ag Pastes 218
10.2.2 Ag Laminates 219
10.2.3 Plated Ag 219
10.2.4 Silver Foil 220
10.2.5 Ag Columns 222
10.2.6 Ag-In System 223
10.3 Conclusions 223
Acknowledgments 224
References 224
11 Silver Nanoparticles as Interconnect Materials 235
Md. Ashif Anwar, Roisul Hasan Galib, and Ahmed Sharif
11.1 Introduction 235
11.2 Synthesis of Ag Nanoparticles 236
11.2.1 Carey Lea’s Colloidal 236
11.2.2 e-Beam IrradiationMethod 237
11.2.3 Chemical Reduction Method 237
11.2.4 Thermal Decomposition Method 238
11.2.5 Laser Ablation Method 239
11.2.6 Microwave Radiation Method 239
11.2.7 Solid-Liquid Extraction Method 240
11.2.8 Tollens Method 240
11.2.9 Biological Method 241
11.2.10 Polyoxometalate Method 241
11.2.11 Solvated Metal Atom Dispersion Method 241
11.3 Composition of Ag Nanopaste 241
11.4 Joining Methods 242
11.5 Properties of Nano-Ag Joints 243
11.5.1 Shear Properties of Nano-Ag Joints 245
11.5.2 Thermal Properties 246
11.5.3 Rheological Properties 247
11.6 Factors Affecting the Properties of Nano-Ag Joints 248
11.6.1 Particle Size and Composition of the Paste 248
11.6.2 Effect of Sintering Temperature, Time, and Pressure on Ag Joints 252
11.6.3 Bonding Substrate 254
11.7 Applications of Ag Nanoparticles 255
11.7.1 Die-Attach Material 255
11.7.2 Solar Cell 255
11.7.3 Nano-Ag as a Potent Bactericidal Agent 256
11.7.4 Nano-Ag in Antifungal Therapy 256
11.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 257
References 257
12 Transient Liquid Phase Bonding 263
Tariq Islam and Ahmed Sharif
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 History and Development of TLP 264
12.3 Theoretical Aspects of TLP 266
12.3.1 TLP Process, Types, and Relevance with Phase Diagram 266
12.3.2 Classification of TLP Bonding Based on Interlayer Composition 272
12.3.3 Variants of TLP Bonding 272
12.4 Development and Applicable Trends of TLP Using Alloy Systems (Phase Diagrams) with Special Features 273
12.4.1 Cu-Sn System 273
12.4.2 Ni-Sn System 276
12.4.3 Ag-Sn System 280
12.4.4 Au-Sn System 281
12.4.5 Miscellaneous Systems 283
12.4.5.1 Cu-Ga System 283
12.4.5.2 Au-(Ge, Si) System 284
12.5 Applications and Materials Used in TLPB 284
12.6 Future of TLP and Conclusion 285
References 285
13 All-Copper Interconnects for High-Temperature Applications 293
Ahmed Sharif
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 Direct Cu-to-Cu Bonding 294
13.2.1 Thermocompression Bonding 294
13.2.2 Surface-Activated Bonding (SAB) 296
13.2.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) 296
13.2.4 Capping with Metal Layer 297
13.3 Cu Paste Bonding 299
13.3.1 Cu Nanoparticle (Cu NP) 299
13.3.1.1 Bonding with Cu NP Under Pressure 299
13.3.1.2 Cu NP Bonding Without Pressure 301
13.3.2 Cu Microparticles 301
13.3.3 Cu Hybrid Particles 303
13.3.4 Cu-Sn TLP System 303
13.3.5 Cu-Ag Composite Systems 304
13.4 Conclusions 306
Acknowledgments 306
References 306
14 Glass-Frit-Based Die-Attach Solution for Harsh Environments 313|
Ahmed Sharif
14.1 Introduction 313
14.1.1 Basic Criteria of the Glass Composition for Glass Frit 314
14.2 Overview of Different Glass Frit Systems 315
14.2.1 Pb-Containing Glass Frit 316
14.2.2 Pb-Free Glass Frit 316
14.2.2.1 Borosilicate Glasses 317
14.2.2.2 Phosphate Glasses 318
14.2.2.3 Bi-Based Lead-Free Frit 319
14.2.2.4 Vanadate Glasses 319
14.2.2.5 Tellurite Glasses 319
14.2.3 Conductive Glass Frit 320
14.3 Bonding Process 320
14.4 Bond Characteristics 322
14.5 Conclusions 324
Acknowledgments 325
References 325
15 Carbon-Nanotube-Reinforced Solders as Thermal Interface Materials 333
Md Muktadir Billah
15.1 Introduction 333
15.2 Typical Thermal Interface Materials 334
15.3 Solders as Thermal Interface Materials 334
15.4 Literature Study: Different Fabrication Techniques 336
15.4.1 Mechanical Alloying/Sonication and Sintering 336
15.4.2 Reflow Process 338
15.4.3 Electrochemical Co-deposition Method 339
15.4.4 Using Metal-Coated Nanotubes 339
15.4.5 Sandwich Method 341
15.4.6 Melting Route 341
15.5 Challenges and Future Scope 342
References 342
16 Reliability Study of Solder Joints in Electronic Packaging Technology 345
Ahmed Sharif and Sushmita Majumder
16.1 Introduction 345
16.2 Reliability Tests 346
16.2.1 Destructive Shear Test 346
16.2.2 Pull Test 347
16.2.3 Bending Test 348
16.2.4 Board-Level Drop Test 349
16.2.5 Thermal Cycling 351
16.2.6 Shock Impact 354
16.2.7 Fatigue Test 355
16.2.8 Pressure Cooker Test 356
16.2.9 Thermal Shock Testing 357
16.2.10 Acoustic Microscopy 358
16.2.11 Thermography 358
16.2.12 X-ray Computed Tomography 359
16.3 Conclusion 360
Acknowledgments 360
References 361
Index 367
