Bioactive Phytochemicals: Drug Discovery to Product Development

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Drug Discovery from Plant Sources: Scope, Approach And Challenges

• Javed Ahmad and Javed Ahamad

1. Introduction
2. Advantages of Drug Discovery from Natural Resources
3. Role of Medicinal Plants in Drug Discovery
4. Steps of Drug Discovery from Higher Plants
5. Drug Discovery from Higher Plants: Approaches
5.1. Ethno-Pharmacological Approach
5.2. Follow-Up of Pharmacological Reports
5.3. Random Selection Followed by Phytochemical Screening
5.4. Random Selection Followed by Pharmacological Screening
6. Challenges in Drug Discovery from Higher Plants

• Concluding Remarks
• Abbreviations
• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 2 Cultivation, Collection and Processing of Medicinal

• Plants
• Omji Porwal, Sachin Kumar Singh, Dinesh Kumar Patel, Saurabh Gupta, Rahul
• Tripathi and Shankar Katekhaye

1. Importance of Medicinal Plants
2. Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
2.1. Method of Propagation
2.1.1. Sexual or Seed Propagation
2.1.2. Asexual or Vegetative Propagation
3. Factors Affecting Cultivation
3.1. Soil
3.2. Altitude, Temperature and Humidity
3.3. Rainfall and Irrigation
3.4. Fertilizers
3.5. Pest and Pest Management
3.5.1. Methods of Pest Control
3.5.1.1. Natural Controls
3.5.1.2. Artificial Control
3.5.1.3. Machine-Like Mechanical Control
3.5.1.4. Agricultural Control
3.5.1.5. Chemical Controls
4. Role of Plant Growth Regulators
4.1. Auxins
4.2. Gibberellins
4.3. Cytokinins
4.4. Abscisic Acid
4.5. Ethylene
4.6. Other Growth Regulators
5. Organic Farming
6. Collection of Medicinal Plants
7. Harvesting of Medicinal Plants
8. Drying of Medicinal Plants
8.1. Natural Drying
8.2. Artificial Drying
8.2.1. Tray Drying
8.2.2. Vacuum Drying
8.2.3. Spray Drying
9. Garbling of Medicinal Products
10. Packing of Medicinal Products
11. Storage and Preservation of Medicinal Plants

• Concluding Remarks
• Abbreviations
• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 3 Extraction of Bioactive Phytochemicals

• Javed Ahamad, Naila Hassan Ali Alkefai and Shehla Nasar Mir Najibullah

1. Introduction
2. Steps Involved in the Extraction of Medicinal Plants
2.1. Drying and Grinding of Plant Materials
2.2. Selection of Suitable Solvents
2.3. Extraction Process
2.4. Filtration
2.5. Concentration
2.6. Drying of Extract
3. Factors Affecting Extraction Process
4. Methods of Extraction
4.1. Classical Methods of Extraction
4.1.1. Maceration
4.1.2. Decoction
4.1.3. Percolation
4.1.4. Reflux Extraction
4.1.5. Soxhlet Extraction
4.1.6. Isolation of Essential Oils
4.2. Modern Methods of Extraction
4.2.1. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (Uae)
4.2.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction (Mae)
4.2.3. Pressurized Liquid Extraction (Ple)
4.2.4. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (Sfe)
4.2.5. Enzyme Assisted Extraction (Eae)
5. Case Studies: Bioactive Phytochemical Isolation And

• Purification

5.1. Piperine
5.2. Piperine Isolation
5.3. Quinine

• Isolation

5.4. Solasodine

• Isolation

5.5. Caffeine

• Isolation

5.6. Starch
5.7. Menthol

• Isolation

5.8. Artemisinin

• Isolation

5.9. Reserpine

• Isolation

5.10. Digitoxin

• Isolation

6. Concluding Remarks

• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 4 Isolation and Purification of Bioactive Phytochemicals
1. Introduction
2. Techniques of Natural Product Isolation
2.1. Counter-Current Chromatography (Ccc)
2.2. Column Chromatography (Cc)
2.3. Medium Pressure Liquid Chromatography (Mplc)
2.4. Preparative Hplc
2.5. Preparative Gas Chromatography (Prep-Gc)
2.6. Preparative Tlc (Prep-Tlc)

• Concluding Remarks
• Abbreviations
• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 5 Spectroscopic Techniques for the Structural

• Characterization of Bioactive Phytochemicals
• Showkat R. Mir, Tara Fuad Tahir, Javed Ahamad, Raad a Kaskoos, Naila Hassan
• Ali Alkefai and Abdul Samad

1. Introduction
2. Structural Elucidation of Phytoconstituents
2.1. Uv-Visible Spectroscopy
2.2. Fourier Transform Infrared (Ft-Ir) Spectroscopy
2.3. Nmr Spectroscopy
2.4. Mass Spectrometry

• Esi Ms Mass Spectrometry

3. Case Studies: Some Examples of Structural Characterization Of

• Natural Products
• Kamran Javed Naquvi, Javed Ahamad, Raad a Kaskoos, Naila Hassan Ali Alkefai, Afrin Salma And
• Showkat R. Mir

3.1. Erythrocentaurine (Ec)
3.2. Octatriacontanoic Acid (Oa)
3.3. Norgadosic Acid (Na)
3.4. Isoalantolactone (Il)
3.5. Quercetin (Qc)

• Concluding Remarks
• Abbreviations
• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 6 Pharmacological Evaluation of Herbal Medicine

• Subasini Uthirapathy, Javed Ahamad, Jaswanth Albert and Govind Prasad Dubey

1. Introduction
2. Common Laboratory Animals
2.1. Albino Rats (Rattus Norvegicus)
2.2. Albino Mice (Mus Musculus)
2.3. C57Bl/6 (B6) Black Mice
2.4. Guinea Pigs (Cavia Porcellus)
2.5. Rabbits (Lupas Cuniculus)
3. Ethics of Animal Experimentation
3.1. Objectives of Anesthesia
3.2. Pre-Anesthetic Medications
3.3. Drugs
3.4. Standard Bleeding Techniques
3.5. Euthanasia
3.6. Types of Euthanasia
3.6.1. Physical Methods
3. Pharmacological Evaluation Methods
3.1. Evaluation of Analgesic Activity of Herbal Medicine
3.1.1. Hotplate Analgesiometer Method
3.1.2. Tail Clip Method
3.1.3. Tail Flick Method
3.1.4. Acetic Acid-Induced Writhing
3.2. Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Herbal Medicine
3.3. Evaluation of Pupil Size Effects of Herbal Medicine
3.4. Evaluation of the Hypnotic Effect of Herbal Medicine
3.5. Evaluation of Muscle Relaxant Activity of Herbal Medicine
3.6. Evaluation of Anti-Anxiety Effect of Herbal Medicine
3.7. Evaluation of Local Anesthetic Activity of Herbal Medicine
3.8. Evaluation of Anti-Peptic-Ulcer Activity of Herbal Medicine
3.8.1. Ethanol-Induced Ulcer Model
3.8.2. Pylorus Ligation Method (Shay Method)
3.8.3. Indomethacin Induced Ulcer
3.8.4. Assessment of Gastric Mucosal Lesions
3.9. Evaluation of Anti-Depressant Effect of Herbal Medicine
3.10. Evaluation of Anti-Atherosclerosisactivity of Herbal Medicine
3.11. Evaluation of Anti-Diabetic Activity of Herbal Medicine
3.12. Evaluation Ofanti-Asthmatic Effect of Herbal Medicine
3.13. Evaluation of Locomotor Activity of Herbal Medicine

• Conclusion
• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations
• References

Chapter 7 Product Development of Herbal Medicine

• Ahmed Nawaz Khan, Chandra Kala and Javed Ahmad

1. Introduction
1.1. Scope of Herbal Medicinal Products
2. Challenges in Herbal Medicinal Product Development
3. Dosage Forms of Herbal Medicinal Products
3.1. Solid Dosage Form
3.2. Liquid Dosage Form
3.3. Semi-Solid Dosage Forms
4. Recommendations in Herbal Medicinal Product Development

• Conclusion and Future Directions
• Abbreviations
• Consent for Publication
• Conflict of Interest
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 8 Quality Control of Herbal Medicinal Products

• Javed Ahamad, Esra T. Anwer, Muath Sh. Mohammed Ameen, Jamia Firdous And
• Nehal Mohsin

1. Introduction
2. the Need of Standardization
3. Methods of Standardization of Herbal Medicinal Products
3.1. Botanical Parameters
3.1.1. Morphological Characters
3.1.2. Powder Microscopy
3.2. Physico-Chemical Parameters
3.2.1. Extractive Values
3.2.2. Ash Value
3.2.3. Loss on Drying
3.2.4. Foreign Organic Matter
3.2.5. Swelling Index
3.2.6. Foaming Index
3.2.7. Fat Content
3.2.8. Resin Content
3.2.9. Total Flavonoid Content
3.2.10. Total Phenolic Content
3.3. General Quality Parameters
3.3.1. Fluorescence Analysis
3.3.2. Powdered Drug Reaction with Chemical Reagents
3.4. Phytochemical Screening
3.5. Determination of Toxic Residues
3.5.1. Pesticide Residues
3.5.2. Aflatoxin Residue
3.5.3. Microbial Load

Author

• Javed Ahmad
• Javed Ahamad