Covers both the fundamentals and the state-of-the-art technology used for MBE
Written by expert researchers working on the frontlines of the field, this book covers fundamentals of Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) technology and science, as well as state-of-the-art MBE technology for electronic and optoelectronic device applications. MBE applications to magnetic semiconductor materials are also included for future magnetic and spintronic device applications.
Molecular Beam Epitaxy: Materials and Applications for Electronics and Optoelectronics is presented in five parts: Fundamentals of MBE; MBE technology for electronic devices application; MBE for optoelectronic devices; Magnetic semiconductors and spintronics devices; and Challenge of MBE to new materials and new researches. The book offers chapters covering the history of MBE; principles of MBE and fundamental mechanism of MBE growth; migration enhanced epitaxy and its application; quantum dot formation and selective area growth by MBE; MBE of III-nitride semiconductors for electronic devices; MBE for Tunnel-FETs; applications of III-V semiconductor quantum dots in optoelectronic devices; MBE of III-V and III-nitride heterostructures for optoelectronic devices with emission wavelengths from THz to ultraviolet; MBE of III-V semiconductors for mid-infrared photodetectors and solar cells; dilute magnetic semiconductor materials and ferromagnet/semiconductor heterostructures and their application to spintronic devices; applications of bismuth-containing III-V semiconductors in devices; MBE growth and device applications of Ga2O3; Heterovalent semiconductor structures and their device applications; and more.
- Includes chapters on the fundamentals of MBE
- Covers new challenging researches in MBE and new technologies
- Edited by two pioneers in the field of MBE with contributions from well-known MBE authors including three Al Cho MBE Award winners
- Part of the Materials for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications series
Molecular Beam Epitaxy: Materials and Applications for Electronics and Optoelectronics will appeal to graduate students, researchers in academia and industry, and others interested in the area of epitaxial growth.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xv
Series Preface xix
Preface xxi
Part I Fundamentals of MBE 1
1. History of MBE 3
Tom Foxon
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The MBE Process 4
1.3 Controlled n and p Doping 10
1.4 Modified Growth Procedures 10
1.5 Gas-Source MBE 11
1.6 Low-Dimensional Structures 11
1.7 III-V Nitrides, Phosphides, Antimonides and Bismides and Other Materials 13
1.8 Early MBE-Grown Devices 18
1.9 Summary 18
Acknowledgments 18
References 19
2. General Description of MBE 23
Yoshiji Horikoshi
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 High-Vacuum Chamber System 24
2.3 Atomic and Molecular Beam Sources 25
2.4 Measurement of MBE Growth Parameters 28
2.5 Surface Characterization Tools for MBE Growth 31
2.6 Summary 37
Acknowledgments 37
References 38
3. Migration-Enhanced Epitaxy and its Application 41
Yoshiji Horikoshi
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Toward Atomically Flat Surfaces in MBE 42
3.3 Principle of MEE 44
3.4 Growth of GaAs by MEE 48
3.5 Incommensurate Deposition and Migration of Ga Atoms 49
3.6 Application of MEE Deposition Sequence to Surface Research 50
3.7 Application of MEE to Selective Area Epitaxy 51
3.8 Summary 54
Acknowledgments 54
References 55
4. Nanostructure Formation Process of MBE 57
Koichi Yamaguchi
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Growth of Quantum Wells 58
4.3 Growth of Quantum Wires and Nanowires 60
4.4 Growth of Quantum Dots 64
4.5 Conclusion 71
References 72
5. Ammonia Molecular Beam Epitaxy of III-Nitrides 73
Micha N. Fireman and James S. Speck
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 III-Nitride Fundamentals 74
5.3 Ammonia Molecular Beam Epitaxy 77
5.4 Ternary Nitride Alloys and Doping 82
5.5 Conclusions 86
References 86
Contents vii
6. Mechanism of Selective Area Growth by MBE 91
Katsumi Kishino
6.1 Background 91
6.2 Growth Parameters for Ti Mask SAG 92
6.3 Initial Growth of Nanocolumns 94
6.4 Nitrogen Flow Rate Dependence of SAG 95
6.5 Diffusion Length of Ga Adatoms 96
6.6 Fine Control of Nanocolumn Arrays by SAG 98
6.7 Controlled Columnar Crystals from Micrometer to Nanometer Size 100
6.8 Nanotemplate SAG of AlGaN Nanocolumns 101
6.9 Conclusions and Outlook 103
References 104
Part II MBE Technology for Electronic Devices Application 107
7. MBE of III-Nitride Semiconductors for Electronic Devices 109
Rolf J. Aidam, O. Ambacher, E. Diwo, B.-J. Godejohann, L. Kirste, T. Lim, R. Quay, and P. Waltereit
7.1 Introduction 109
7.2 MBE Growth Techniques 110
7.3 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors on SiC Substrate 118
7.4 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors on Si Substrate 123
7.5 HEMTs with Thin Barrier Layers for High-Frequency Applications 125
7.6 Vertical Devices 130
References 132
8. Molecular Beam Epitaxy for Steep Switching Tunnel FETs 135
Salim El Kazzi
8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 TFET Working Principle 136
8.3 III-V Heterostructure for TFETs 136
8.4 MBE for Beyond CMOS Technologies 138
8.5 Doping 139
8.6 Tunneling Interface Engineering 142
8.7 MBE for III-V TFET Integration 143
8.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 146
Acknowledgments 146
References 147
Part III MBE for Optoelectronic Devices 149
9. Applications of III-V Semiconductor Quantum Dots in Optoelectronic Devices 151
Kouichi Akahane and Yoshiaki Nakata
9.1 Introduction: Self-assembled Quantum Dots 151
9.2 Lasers Based on InAs Quantum Dots Grown on GaAs Substrates 152
9.3 InAs QD Optical Device Operating at Telecom Band (1.55 μm) 158
9.4 Recent Progress in QD Lasers 164
9.5 Summary 165
References 165
10. Applications of III-V Semiconductors for Mid-infrared Lasers 169
Yuichi Kawamura
10.1 Introduction 169
10.2 GaSb-Based Lasers 170
10.3 InP-Based Lasers 170
10.4 InAs-Based Lasers 173
10.5 Conclusion 174
References 174
11. Molecular Beam Epitaxial Growth of Terahertz Quantum Cascade Lasers 175
Harvey E. Beere and David A. Ritchie
11.1 Introduction 175
11.2 Epitaxial Challenges 179
References 189
12. MBE of III-Nitride Heterostructures for Optoelectronic Devices 191
C. Skierbiszewski, G. Muziol, H. Turski, M. Siekacz, K. Nowakowski-Szkudlarek, A. Feduniewicz- ̇ Zmuda, P. Wolny, and M. Sawicka
12.1 Introduction 191
12.2 Low-Temperature Growth of Nitrides by PAMBE 192
12.4 New Concepts of LDs with Tunnel Junctions 205
12.5 Summary 206
Acknowledgments 207
References 207
13. III-Nitride Quantum Dots for Optoelectronic Devices 211
Pallab Bhattacharya, Thomas Frost, Shafat Jahangir, Saniya Deshpande, and Arnab Hazari
13.1 Introduction 211
13.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy of InGaN/GaN Self-organized Quantum Dots 212
13.3 Quantum Dot Wavelength Converter White Light-Emitting Diode 220
13.4 Quantum Dot Lasers 223
13.5 Summary and Future Prospects 229
References 230
14. Molecular-Beam Epitaxy of Antimonides for Optoelectronic Devices 233
Eric Tournie
14.1 Introduction 233
14.2 Epitaxy of Antimonides: A Brief Historical Survey 235
14.3 Molecular-Beam Epitaxy of Antimonide 236
14.4 Outlook 243
Acknowledgments 244
References 244
15. III-V Semiconductors for Infrared Detectors 247
P. C. Klipstein
15.1 Introduction 247
15.2 InAsSb XBn Detectors 251
15.3 T2SL XBp Detectors 255
15.4 Conclusion 262
Acknowledgments 262
References 262
16. MBE of III-V Semiconductors for Solar Cells 265
Takeyoshi Sugaya
16.1 Introduction 265
16.2 InGaP Solar Cells 266
16.3 InGaAsP Solar Cells Lattice-Matched to GaAs 268
16.4 InGaAsP Solar Cells Lattice-Matched to InP 271
16.5 Growth of Tunnel Junctions for Multi-Junction Solar Cells 272
16.6 Summary 277
References 277
Part IV Magnetic Semiconductors and Spintronics Devices 279
17. III-V-Based Magnetic Semiconductors and Spintronics Devices 281
Hiro Munekata
17.1 Introduction 281
17.2 Hole-Mediated Ferromagnetism 282
17.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy and Materials Characterization 285
17.4 Studies in View of Spintronics Applications 293
17.5 Conclusions and Prospects 296
Acknowledgments 296
References 296
18. III-Nitride Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors 299
Yi-Kai Zhou and Hajime Asahi
18.1 Introduction 299
18.2 Transition-Metal-Doped GaN 300
18.3 Rare-Earth-Doped III-Nitrides 303
18.4 Device Applications 309
18.5 Summary 312
References 312
19. MBE Growth, Magnetic and Magneto-optical Properties of II-VI DMSs 315
Shinji Kuroda
19.1 II-VI DMSs Doped with Mn 315
19.2 II-VI DMSs Doped with Cr and Fe 319
19.3 ZnO-Based DMSs 323
References 325
20. Ferromagnet/Semiconductor Heterostructures and Nanostructures Grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy 329
Masaaki Tanaka
20.1 Introduction 329
20.2 MnAs on GaAs(001) and Si(001) Substrates 330
20.3 GaAs:MnAs Granular Materials: Magnetoresistive Effects and Related Devices 337
20.4 Summary 345
Acknowledgments 345
References 346
21. MBE Growth of Ge-Based Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors 349
Tianxiao Nie, Jianshi Tang, and Kang L. Wang
21.1 Introduction 349
21.2 MBE Growth of MnxGe1−x Thin Film and Nanostructures 351
21.3 Magnetic Properties of MnxGe1−x Thin Films and Nanostructures 355
21.4 Electric-Field-Controlled Ferromagnetism and Magnetoresistance 359
21.5 Conclusion 362
Acknowledgments 362
References 363
Part V Challenge of MBE to New Materials and New Researches 365
22. Molecular Beam Epitaxial Growth of Topological Insulators 367
Xiao Feng, Ke He, Xucun Ma, and Qi-Kun Xue
22.1 Introduction 367
22.2 MBE Growth of Bi2Se3 Family Three-Dimensional Topological Insulators 368
22.3 Defects in MBE-Grown Bi2Se3 Family TI Films 371
22.4 Band Structure Engineering in Ternary Bi2Se3 Family TIs 373
22.5 Magnetically Doped Bi2Se3 Family TIs 373
22.6 MBE Growth of 2D TI Materials 375
22.7 Summary 377
References 377
23. Applications of Bismuth-Containing III-V Semiconductors in Devices 381
Masahiro Yoshimoto
23.1 Introduction 381
23.2 Growth of GaAsBi 382
23.3 Properties of GaAsBi 384
23.4 Applications of GaAsBi 385
23.5 Applications of Other Bi-Containing Semiconductors 390
23.6 Summary 391
References 392
24. MBE Growth of Graphene 395
J. Marcelo J. Lopes
24.1 Introduction 395
24.2 MBE of Graphene on Metals 398
24.3 MBE of Graphene on Semiconductors 399
24.4 MBE of Graphene on Oxides and Other Dielectrics 403
24.5 Conclusions 407
Acknowledgments 408
References 408
25. MBE Growth and Device Applications of Ga2O3 411
Masataka Higashiwaki
25.1 Introduction 411
25.2 Physical Properties of Ga2O3 411
25.3 Ga2O3 Electronic Device Applications 414
25.4 Melt-Grown Bulk Single Crystals 414
25.5 Ga2O3 MBE Growth 414
25.6 Transistor Applications 419
25.7 Summary 421
References 421
26. Molecular Beam Epitaxy for Oxide Electronics 423
Abhinav Prakash and Bharat Jalan
26.1 Introduction 423
26.2 Structure-Property Relationship in Perovskite Oxides 423
26.3 Oxide Molecular Beam Epitaxy 430
26.4 Recent Developments in Oxide MBE 435
26.5 Outlook 443
26.6 Summary 447
Acknowledgments 447
References 447
27. In-situ STM Study of MBE Growth Process 453
Shiro Tsukamoto
27.1 Introduction 453
27.2 The Advantages of In-situ STM Observation for Understanding Growth Mechanisms 454
27.3 In-situ STM Observation of InAs Growth on GaAs(001) by STMBE System 454
27.4 In-situ STM Observation of Various Growths and Treatments on GaAs Surfaces by STMBE System 456
27.5 Conclusion 460
References 460
28. Heterovalent Semiconductor Structures and their Device Applications 463
Yong-Hang Zhang
28.1 Introduction 463
28.2 MBE Growth of Heterovalent Structures 465
28.3 ZnTe and GaSb/ZnTe Heterovalent Distributed Bragg Reflector Structures Grown on GaSb 466
28.4 CdTe/MgCdTe Structure and Heterovalent Devices Grown on InSb Substrates 468
28.5 Single-Crystal CdTe/MgxCd1−xTe Solar Cells 474
28.6 CdTe/InSb Two-Color Photodetectors 477
Acknowledgments 479
References 480
Index i1
