Understand herbal and plant-based treatments for chronic disorders with this groundbreaking work
Due in part to the aging of the global population, disorders of the central nervous system have become an increasingly grave public health concern in recent years. Demand for pharmaceutical treatments has been correspondingly high, but there are many barriers to the successful development of effective synthetic drugs. Phytomedicines, or plant-based and herbal medicines, have proven to be an effective alternative, boasting lower toxicity and cost and higher efficacy, and one that demands greater research and broader-based practitioner knowledge.
Phytochemical Drug Discovery for Central Nervous System Disorders meets this demand with a timely, clearly-structured guide. It thorough coverage presents a wide range of phytochemicals with potential as candidates for drug discovery, describing their sources, properties, and therapeutic efficacy. The result is a vital contribution to the ongoing fight against central nervous system (CNS) disorders.
Phytochemical Drug Discovery for Central Nervous System Disorders readers will also find:
- Detailed treatment of CNS-active plant products, neuroprotective chemicals, plant-based nutraceutical products, and more
- Up-to-date information on FDA-approved drugs and existing plant-based products used to treat CNS disorders
- An authorial team featuring experts from across the globe
Phytochemical Drug Discovery for Central Nervous System Disorders is essential for drug discovery scientists, drug developers, medicinal chemists, biochemists, and any researchers and professionals in the health care or pharmaceutical industries.
Table of Contents
Contributors xv
Preface xxi
1 Central Nervous System Disorders and Food and Drug Administration-Approved Drugs 1
Estella U. Odoh, Chukwuebuka Egbuna, Chukwuma M. Onyegbulam, Diovu E. Obioma, Linda A. Onugwu, Obinna S. Onugwu, and Mithun Rudrapal
1.1 Incidence and Prevalence of Major Neurologic Disorders 2
1.2 Etiology 2
1.3 Pathogenesis 3
1.4 Central Nervous System Disorders and Drugs Approved by the Food and Drug Administration 3
1.4.1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 4
1.4.2 Migraine 8
1.4.3 Parkinson’s Disease 9
1.4.4 Multiple Sclerosis 11
1.4.5 Alzheimer’s Disease 11
1.4.6 Muscular Dystrophy 12
1.4.7 Epilepsy/Seizure 12
1.5 Conclusion 13
References 13
2 Drug Discovery from Medicinal Plants against Parkinson’s Disease 17
Dunya Al-Duhaidahawi
2.1 Pathogenesis of Parkinson’s Disease 17
2.1.1 Misfolding and Aggregation of Proteins 17
2.1.2 Mitochondrial Dysfunction 18
2.1.3 Neuroinflammation 18
2.1.4 Metal Ion Imbalance in the Brain 18
2.1.5 Protease-Mediated Degradation Inhibition 18
2.1.6 Oxidative Stress 19
2.2 Natural Dopaminergic Neuroprotective Compounds 19
2.2.1 Polyphenols 19
2.2.1.1 Resveratrol 19
2.2.1.2 Sesamin 19
2.2.1.3 Curcumin 19
2.2.1.4 6-Shogaol 20
2.2.1.5 Fustin 20
2.2.1.6 Biochanin A 20
2.2.1.7 Acacetin 20
2.2.1.8 Baicalein 20
2.3 Nitrogenated Phytochemicals 21
2.3.1 Alkaloids 21
2.3.1.1 Tetrahydro Berberine 21
2.3.1.2 Berberine 21
2.3.1.3 Celastrol 21
2.3.2 Saponins 21
2.3.2.1 Astragaloside IV 21
2.3.2.2 Ginseng 21
2.4 Chinese Herbal Medications and Parkinson’s Disease 22
2.4.1 Acanthopanax 22
2.4.2 Alpinia 22
2.4.3 Camellia 22
2.4.4 Cassia 23
2.4.5 Chrysanthemum 23
2.4.6 Cistanche 23
2.4.7 Gastrodia 23
2.4.8 Ginkgo 24
2.4.9 Gynostemma 24
2.4.10 Paeonia 24
2.4.11 Panax 25
2.4.12 Polygala 25
2.4.13 Polygonum 25
2.4.14 Psoralea 26
2.5 Herbal Medicines from India and Parkinson’s Disease 26
2.5.1 Withania somnifera 26
2.5.2 Tinospora cordifolia 26
2.5.3 Mucuna pruriens 26
2.6 European Plants 27
2.7 α-Synuclein as a Potential Therapeutic Target 27
2.7.1 Phytochemicals Targeting the α-Synuclein Cascade 27
2.8 Conclusion 28
References 39
3 Drug Discovery from Medicinal Plants against Alzheimer’s Disease 43
Mona M. Marzouk, Mai M. Farid, Nesrine M. Hegazi, and Shahira M. Ezzat
3.1 Pathogenesis 44
3.1.1 Amyloid Plaques 44
3.1.2 Neurofibrillary Tangles 45
3.1.3 Synaptic Damage 45
3.1.4 Cholinergic Functions 45
3.1.5 Oxidative Stress 45
3.1.6 Neuroinflammation 45
3.2 Treatment Strategies for Alzheimer’s Disease 46
3.2.1 Amyloid Hypothesis 46
3.2.2 Tau Proteins Hypothesis 46
3.2.3 Dendritic Hypothesis 54
3.2.4 Cholinergic Hypothesis 55
3.2.5 Strategies for 5-HT 6 Obstruction 55
3.2.6 Metabolic Hypothesis 55
3.3 Medicinal Plants Having Effects against Alzheimer’s Disease 56
3.3.1 Medicinal Plants Targeting the Cholinergic System 56
3.3.2 Medicinal Plants Targeting Amyloid Beta 61
3.3.3 Medicinal Plants Targeting Tau-Related Pathways 65
3.4 Natural Products with Proven Anti-Alzheimer’s Activity 66
3.5 Conclusion 66
References 70
4 Effects of Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals on Schizophrenia 81
Nithya Rani Raju, S.V. Rashmitha, S. Pavithra, Erika Amparo Torres, M. Kishor, and Raghu Ram Achar
4.1 Mechanisms of Action Related to Schizophrenia 81
4.1.1 Vesicular Monoamine Transporters 82
4.1.2 Dopamine Receptors/Transporters 82
4.1.3 Serotonin Receptors/Transporters 83
4.1.4 Glutamate Transporters 84
4.1.5 Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Level/Receptors 84
4.1.6 Genes Related to Schizophrenia 87
4.2 Ayurvedic Plants Used as Treatment for Schizophrenia and Related Psychoses 88
4.2.1 Allium cepa 88
4.2.2 Acorus calamus. Linn 88
4.2.3 Bacopa monnieri 89
4.2.4 Carum carvi 89
4.2.5 Celastrus panicutalus 90
4.2.6 Centella asiatica 90
4.2.7 Convolvulus pluricaulis 91
4.2.8 Coriandrum sativum 91
4.2.9 Cuminum cyminum L. 91
4.2.10 Cyperus Rotundus Linn. 92
4.2.11 Eclipta alba 92
4.2.12 Ficus religiosa 92
4.2.13 Glycyrrhiza glabra 93
4.2.14 Moringa oleifera 93
4.2.15 Nigella sativa 93
4.2.16 Piper longum 94
4.2.17 Rauwolfia serpentina 94
4.2.18 Sesbania grandiflora 95
4.2.19 Sphaeranthus indicus 95
4.2.20 Tinospora cordifolia 96
4.2.21 Valeriana wallichii 96
4.2.22 Withania somnifera 97
4.2.23 Ziziphus mauritiana 97
4.3 Conclusion 97
References 122
5 Drug Discovery from Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals against Neuropathic Pain 137
Santwana Palai, Shyam S. Kesh, and Mithun Rudrapal
5.1 Mechanisms of Neuropathic Pain 138
5.2 Animal Models for Studying Neuropathic Pain 139
5.2.1 Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes 139
5.2.2 High-Fat Diet 139
5.2.3 Sciatic Nerve Injury 139
5.2.4 Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy 139
5.3 Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals against Neuropathic Pain 139
5.4 Role of Plants and Phytochemicals in Different Neuropathic Pain Models 140
5.4.1 Diabetic Neuropathy 140
5.4.2 Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy 153
5.4.3 Sciatic Nerve Chronic Constriction Injury 154
5.4.4 Other Neuropathic Pain Signaling Pathways 154
5.5 Future Perspectives 155
5.6 Conclusion 155
References 155
6 Brain Function, Stroke, and Medicinal Herbs 161
Shahira M. Ezzat, Rana Marghany, Nehal El Mahdi, and Mohamed A. Salem
6.1 Brain Function and Stroke 161
6.2 Strategies for Treatment of Ischemic Stroke 162
6.2.1 Neuroprotective Strategy 162
6.2.1.1 Oxidative Stress Targeting 162
6.2.1.2 Excitotoxicity Targeting 162
6.2.1.3 Apoptosis Targeting 162
6.2.2 Neurorestorative Strategy 162
6.2.2.1 Angiogenesis Targeting 162
6.2.2.2 Neurogenesis Targeting 163
6.3 Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Stroke 163
6.4 Natural Products for the Treatment of Stroke 165
6.5 Recent Applications of Nanomedicine for Treatment of Stroke 165
6.6 Conclusion 174
References 174
7 Plant-Based Analgesics 181
Gabriel O. Anyanwu and Dorathy O. Anzaku
7.1 Current Analgesic Drugs and Their Mechanisms of Action 182
7.2 Plant-Derived Lead Compounds with Analgesic Activities 182
7.2.1 Saponins and Terpenoids 184
7.2.2 Flavonoids 184
7.2.3 Alkaloids 184
7.2.4 Glycosides 185
7.3 Analgesic Effects of Medicinal Plants Found in Nigeria 185
7.4 Limitations of Plant-Based Analgesics 194
7.5 Future Directions and Perspective for Plant-Based Analgesics 194
7.6 Conclusion 194
References 195
8 Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals against Depression 203
Neelma Munir, Ayesha Qamar, Maria Hasnain, Huma Waqif, Maria Hanif, Zirwa Sarwar, and Shagufta Naz
8.1 Causes of Depression 203
8.1.1 Genetic Factors 204
8.1.2 Environmental Factors 204
8.1.3 Risk Factors for Depression 204
8.2 Symptoms of Depression 204
8.2.1 Symptoms of Depression in Men 204
8.2.2 Symptoms of Depression in Women 205
8.2.3 Symptoms of Depression in Children 205
8.3 Diagnosis of Depression 205
8.4 Types of Depression 205
8.4.1 Major Depressive Disorder 206
8.4.2 Persistent Depressive Disorder 206
8.4.3 Depression with Psychosis 206
8.4.4 Depression in Pregnancy 207
8.5 Treatment of Depression 207
8.5.1 Natural Treatment for Depression 208
8.5.2 Medicinal Plants as Antidepressants 208
8.5.2.1 Lavandula officinalis 209
8.5.2.2 Kaempferia parviflora 210
8.5.2.3 Asparagus racemosus 211
8.5.2.4 Passiflora foetida 211
8.5.2.5 Momordica charantia 212
8.5.2.6 Bacopa monniera 212
8.5.2.7 Valeriana officinalis 212
8.5.2.8 Rhodiola rosea 212
8.5.2.9 Withania somnifera 212
8.5.2.10 Matricaria recutita 213
8.5.2.11 Ginkgo biloba 213
8.6 Conclusion 213
References 214
9 Anti-inflammatory Agents from Medicinal Plants 219
Bui T. Tung, Tran V. Linh, Trinh P. Thao, and Nguyen D. Thuan
9.1 Role of Neuroinflammation in Neurodegenerative Diseases 220
9.2 Neuroinflammatory Drugs 222
9.3 Medicinal Plants as Sources of Anti-inflammatory Agents 231
9.3.1 Allium sativum 232
9.3.2 Azadirachta indica 233
9.3.3 Cassia tora 233
9.3.4 Euphorbia hirta 233
9.3.5 Garcinia mangostana 234
9.3.6 Punica granatum 235
9.3.7 Ricinus communis 235
9.3.8 Scutellaria baicalensis 236
9.3.9 Solanum melongena 237
9.4 Bioactive Compounds as Anti-inflammatory Agents 237
9.4.1 Curcumin 238
9.4.2 Eugenol 238
9.4.3 Epigallocatechin 3-Gallate 239
9.4.4 Guggulsterone 240
9.4.5 Resveratrol 240
9.4.6 Thymoquinone 241
9.5 Conclusion 241
References 242
10 Plant-Based Products and Phytochemicals against Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System 251
Santwana Palai, Shyam S. Kesh, and Mithun Rudrapal
10.1 Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System 252
10.2 Plant and Phytochemicals as Antiviral Agents for Central Nervous System Viral Infections 252
10.2.1 SARS Cov-2 Virus 252
10.2.2 Japanese Encephalitis Virus 262
10.2.3 West Nile Virus 263
10.2.4 Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus 264
10.2.5 Herpes Simplex Virus 264
10.2.6 Rabies Virus 265
10.2.7 Varicella Zoster Virus 266
10.2.8 Poliomyelitis Virus 266
10.2.9 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 267
10.3 Controlling Vectors of Viral Diseases of the Central Nervous System 268
10.4 Future Perspectives 269
10.5 Conclusion 269
References 270
11 Fruits and Nutraceuticals for the Prevention and Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders 273
Abeer M. A. El Sayed and Chukwuebuka Egbuna
11.1 Fruits for Cognition and Brain Health 274
11.1.1 Aegle marmelos 274
11.1.2 Citrullus lanatus 274
11.1.3 Citrus grandis 274
11.1.4 Phoenix sylvestris 274
11.1.5 Phyllanthus emblica 274
11.1.6 Emblica officinalis 275
11.1.7 Solanum torvum 275
11.1.8 Terminalia chebula 275
11.1.9 Blackberries 275
11.1.10 Blueberries 276
11.1.11 Strawberries 276
11.1.12 Raspberries 276
11.1.13 Cherries 276
11.1.14 Oranges 277
11.1.15 Plums 277
11.1.16 Prunes 277
11.1.17 Red Grapes 277
11.1.18 Pomegranates 278
11.2 Nutraceuticals in Ameliorating Neurodegeneration 278
11.2.1 Quercetin and Kaempferol 278
11.2.2 Withanine 278
11.2.3 Asiatic Acid 279
11.2.4 Bhilavanol A and B 279
11.3 Nutraceuticals in Alzheimer’s Disease 279
11.3.1 Flavonoids 279
11.3.2 Apigenin 280
11.3.3 Genistein, Daidzein, Glycitin 280
11.3.4 Resveratrol 280
11.3.5 Curcumin 280
11.3.6 Carotenoids 280
11.3.7 Crocin 281
11.3.8 Carnosic Acid and Rosmarinic Acid 281
11.3.9 Alkaloids 281
11.4 Nutraceuticals in Parkinson’s Disease 281
11.4.1 Vitamins: Folate, Cobalamin, Pyridoxin 281
11.5 Nutraceuticals in Depression 283
11.6 Nutraceuticals in Psychotic Disorders 283
11.7 Conclusion 283
References 284
12 Neurorestorative Potential of Medicinal Plants and Their hytochemicals 291
Babatunde O. Adetuyi, Kehinde A. Odelade, Grace O. Odine, Oluwatosin A. Adetuyi, Semiloore O. Omowumi, Olubanke O. Ogunlana, and Chukwuebuka Egbuna
12.1 Therapeutic Value of Some Medicinal Plants and their Importance 292
12.2 Types of Medicinal Plants and Their Uses 293
12.3 Phytochemicals 293
12.4 Phytochemical Constituents in Some Medicinal Plants 295
12.4.1 Onions 295
12.4.1.1 Phytochemical Constituents in Onions 295
12.4.2 Turmeric 296
12.4.2.1 Phytochemical Constituents in Turmeric 296
12.4.3 Ginger 297
12.4.3.1 Phytochemical Constituents in Ginger 297
12.4.4 Garlic 297
12.4.4.1 Phytochemical Constituents in Garlic 298
12.5 The Brain 298
12.5.1 Brain Physiology 299
12.5.1.1 Neurotransmitters and Receptors 299
12.5.1.2 Electrical Activity 300
12.5.1.3 Metabolism 300
12.5.2 Functions of the Brain 300
12.5.2.1 Perception 300
12.5.3 Motor Control 300
12.5.4 Homeostasis 301
12.5.5 Motivation 301
12.5.6 Learning and Memory 302
12.6 Brain Conditions 302
12.7 Protective Effects of Medicinal Plants on the Brain 303
12.7.1 Crocus sativus 303
12.7.1.1 Medicinal Properties of Crocus sativus 303
12.7.2 Nigella sativa 304
12.7.2.1 Medicinal Properties of Nigella sativa 304
12.7.3 Coriandrum sativum 304
12.7.3.1 Medicinal Properties of Coriandrum sativum 304
12.7.4 Ferula assafoetida 304
12.7.4.1 Medicinal Properties of Ferula assafoetida 304
12.7.5 Thymus vulgaris 305
12.7.5.1 Medicinal Properties of Thymus vulgaris 305
12.7.6 Curcuma longa 305
12.7.6.1 Medicinal Properties of Curcuma longa 305
12.8 Conclusion 305
References 306
13 Neurotransmitter Modulation by Phytochemicals 311
Prachee Dubey and Kanti Bhooshan Pandey
13.1 Sources, Structures, and Classifications of Phytochemicals 311
13.2 Neurotransmitters and Their Functions 316
13.3 Modulation of Cholinergic Signaling by Phytochemicals 317
13.3.1 Effect of Phytochemicals on Acetylcholinesterase 318
13.4 Effect of Phytochemicals on GABAergic Signaling 318
13.5 Effect of Phytochemicals on Glutamatergic Signaling 319
13.6 Modulation of Serotonergic and Dopaminergic Signaling by Phytochemicals 320
13.7 Conclusion 321
Acknowledgments 321
References 321
14 Antipyretic Agents from Plant Origins 327
Kamoru A. Adedokun, Sikiru O. Imodoye, Akeem O. Busari, Malik A. Sanusi, Abdullah Olawuyi, and Maroof G. Oyeniyi
14.1 Pyrexia Development, Its Mechanisms, and the Roles of Plant Metabolites as Antipyretics 328
14.1.1 Fever Development 328
14.1.2 Mechanisms of Fever Development 328
14.1.2.1 Humoral Pathway 328
14.1.2.2 Neural Pathway 330
14.1.3 Roles of Plant Metabolites as Antipyretics 331
14.2 Antipyretic Agents of Plant Origin 341
14.2.1 Arbutus andrachne (Family Ericaceae) 341
14.2.2 Berberis spp. (Family Berberidaceae) 343
14.2.3 Cassia fistula Linn. (Family Caesalpiniaceae) 343
14.2.4 Crataeva magma (Family Capparidaceae) 344
14.2.5 Echinops kebericho M. (Family Asteraceae) 345
14.2.6 Enicostema littorale (Family Gentianaceae) 346
14.2.7 Piper nigrum (Family Piperaceae) 346
14.2.8 Viola betonicifolia (Family Violaceace) 347
14.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 348
References 349
15 Medicinal Herbs against Central Nervous System Disorders 359
Ahmed Olatunde, Neelma Munir, Godwin Anywar, Maria Hanif, Huma Waqif, Habibu Tijjani, Barbara Sawicka, and Akram Muhammad
15.1 Medicinal Plants as Interventions for Central Nervous System Disorders 360
15.2 Some Medicinal Plants with Neuroprotective Action on Central Nervous System Disorders 362
15.2.1 Desmodium adscendens, Cleome rutidosperma, Withania somnifera, and Panax ginseng 362
15.2.2 Baccopa monnieri and Rauvolfia serpentina 363
15.2.3 Avena sativa and Annona squamosa 364
15.2.4 Acorus calamus, Emblica officinalis, and Strychnos nux-vomica 365
15.3 Some Central Nervous System Disorders and Medicinal Plant Interventions 366
15.3.1 Depression 366
15.3.1.1 Family Amaryllidaceae - Allium cepa 366
15.3.1.2 Family Plantaginaceae - Bacopa monnieri 367
15.3.1.3 Family Fabaceae - Glycyrrhiza glabra 368
15.3.1.4 Family Lamiaceae - Rosmarinus officinalis 368
15.3.1.5 Family Zingiberaceae - Zingiber officinale 369
15.3.2 Epilepsy 369
15.3.2.1 Family Hypoxidaceae - Hypoxis hemerocallidea 370
15.3.2.2 Family Piperaceae - Piper methysticum 371
15.3.2.3 Family Caprifoliaceae - Valeriana officinalis 372
15.3.2.4 Family Phyllanthaceae - Bridelia micrantha 372
15.3.2.5 Family Rubiaceae - Sarcocephalus latifolius 372
15.3.3 Huntington’s Disease 372
15.3.3.1 Family Ginkgoaceae - Ginkgo biloba 373
15.3.3.2 Family Araliaceae - Panax ginseng 373
15.3.3.3 Family Asteraceae - Calendula officinalis 373
15.3.3.4 Family Primulaceae - Embelia ribes 374
15.3.3.5 Family Theaceae - Camellia sinensis 374
15.4 Some Mechanistic Actions of Medicinal Herbs against Central Nervous System Disorders 374
15.4.1 In Vitro Studies 375
15.4.2 In Vivo Studies 375
15.5 Conclusion 376
References 376
16 Important Antihistaminic Plants and Their Potential Role in Health 385
Salwa Bouabdallah, Hagar A. Sobhy, Babatunde O. Adetuyi, Omayma A. Eldahshan, and Chukwuebuka Egbuna
16.1 Antihistaminic Plants 386
16.1.1 Family Acanthaceae 386
16.1.2 Family Amaranthaceae 386
16.1.3 Family Amaryllidaceae 387
16.1.4 Family Asclepiadaceae 387
16.1.5 Family Asteraceae 387
16.1.6 Family Caesalpiniaceae 387
16.1.7 Family Casuarinaceae 387
16.1.8 Family Cruciferae 388
16.1.9 Family Cucurbitacea 388
16.1.10 Family Euphorbiaceae 388
16.1.11 Family Fabaceae 388
16.1.12 Family Lamiaceae 388
16.1.13 Family Moraceae 388
16.1.14 Family Myricaceae 388
16.1.15 Family Myrtaceae 389
16.1.16 Family Olacaceae 389
16.1.17 Family Piperaceae 389
16.1.18 Family Poaceae 389
16.1.19 Family Polygalaceae 390
16.1.20 Family Scrophulariaceae 390
16.1.21 Family Verbenaceae 390
16.1.22 Family Zygophylaceae 390
16.2 Bioactive Compounds with Antihistaminic Activities 390
16.3 Conclusion 394
References 394
17 Effect of Plant-Based Anticonvulsant Products and Phytochemicals 397
Muhammad Akram, Sadia Zafar, Hassan Shah, Zerfishan Riaz, Khawaja S. Ahmad, Muhammad Riaz, Naveed Munir, Muhammad Jahangeer, Imtiaz M. Tahir, Michael P. Okoh, Muhammad A. Ishfaq, David Pérez-Jorge, Vanessa de Andrade Royo, Muhammad M. Aslam, Chukwuebuka Egbuna, and Chukwunonso O. Igboekwe
17.1 Types of Epileptic Seizures 398
17.2 Basic Mechanisms of Epilepsy 398
17.3 Epilepsy and Oxidative Stress 400
17.4 Epilepsy and Inflammation 401
17.5 Tests for Seizure Induction 402
17.6 Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Epilepsy 402
17.7 Conclusion 403
References 407
18 Application of Nanophytomedicine for the Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders 413
Nilesh Rarokar, Nilambari Gurav, and Shailendra Gurav
18.1 Neurodegenerative Disease and the Blood-Brain Barrier 414
18.1.1 Problems Associated with Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders 414
18.1.2 Role of the Blood-Brain Barrier 415
18.1.3 Blood-Brain Barrier Crossing Mechanism 415
18.1.4 Phytomedicine/Neuroprotective Drugs Reported for Central Nervous System Disorders 416
18.2 Nano Approaches to Central Nervous System Drug Delivery 418
18.2.1 Types of Nanocarriers 418
18.2.1.1 Liposomes 418
18.2.1.2 Micelles 418
18.2.1.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 418
18.2.1.4 Phytosomes 419
18.2.1.5 Nanosponges 419
18.2.1.6 Nanoemulsions 419
18.2.1.7 Dendrimers 420
18.2.1.8 Nanoparticles 420
18.2.2 Techniques/Preparation/Methods 420
18.2.3 Mechanism of Action of Drug Release 421
18.3 Nanophytomedicine for Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders 422
18.3.1 Alzheimer’s Disease 422
18.3.2 Parkinson’s Disease 422
18.3.3 Epilepsy 423
18.3.4 Stroke 423
18.3.5 Huntington’s Disease 424
18.3.6 Multiple Necrosis 425
18.3.7 Tumors/Gliomas/Glioblastomas 425
18.4 Challenges in Nanophytomedicine 425
18.5 Conclusion 426
References 426
Index 431
