Comprehensive introduction to managing novel pollutants commonly released into the environment through industrial and everyday processes
Microconstituents in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Removal and Management provides the readers with an understanding of the occurrence and fate of microconstituents, pollutants that have not previously been detected or regulated under current environmental laws or may cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects even at insignificant levels, covering their presence in the environment and possible management strategies. The text is practice-oriented and evaluates a wide range of technologies for pollutant removal and how to implement them in the field.
In Microconstituents in the Environment, readers will find information on: - Fundamental ideas regarding microconstituents, including their classification, major sources, and detection methods, and their removal via biological treatment techniques - Fate and transport of microconstituents in various environmental domains, including mathematical modeling based on remote sensing techniques - Physicochemical treatment techniques for microconstituents, including precipitation, absorption, filtration, membrane separation, and oxidation - Sustainability and environmental management, including the regulatory framework and requirements for developing a new field application, plus an outlook on green design concepts
With its emphasis on management and remediation, Microconstituents in the Environment is a highly useful one-stop resource on the subject for environmental scientists, modelers, government agencies, and research scientists working in the field of environmental pollution.
Table of Contents
Preface xix
List of Contributors xxi
About the Editors xxix
Part I Fundamental Ideas Regarding Microconstituents in the Environment 1
1 Introduction to Microconstituents 3
Manaswini Behera, Prangya Ranjan Rout, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Chih-Ming Kao, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Classification of Microconstituents 5
1.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 5
1.2.2 Pesticides 8
1.2.3 Disinfection By-Products 8
1.2.4 Industrial Chemicals 9
1.2.5 Algal Toxins 9
1.3 Source of Microconstituents 10
1.3.1 Source of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) in the Environment 10
1.3.2 Source of Pesticides in the Environment 11
1.3.3 Source of Disinfection By-Products in the Environment 13
1.3.4 Source of Industrial Chemicals in the Environment 14
1.3.5 Source of Algal Toxins in the Environment 16
1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Microconstituents 17
1.5 Impact on Human Society and Ecosystem 18
1.5.1 Impact on Human Health 21
1.5.2 Impact on the Ecosystem 21
1.6 The Structure of the Book 24
1.7 Conclusions 26
2 Occurrence 37
Prangya Ranjan Rout, Manaswini Behera, Puspendu Bhunia, Tian C. Zhang, and Rao Y. Surampalli
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Goals of Occurrence Survey 40
2.3 Environmental Occurrence of Microconstituents 40
2.3.1 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Groundwater 41
2.3.2 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Surface Water 43
2.3.3 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Marine Water 44
2.3.4 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Drinking Water 45
2.3.5 Occurrence of Microconstituents in WWTPs Effluent and Sludge 46
2.3.6 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Soil 47
2.3.7 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Foods and Vegetables 48
2.4 Challenges and Future Prospective in Occurrence Survey 49
2.5 Conclusions 49
3 Sampling, Characterization, and Monitoring 55
Mansi Achhoda, Nirmalya Halder, Lavanya Adagadda, Sanjoy Gorai, Meena Kumari Sharma, Naresh Kumar Sahoo, Sasmita Chand, and Prangya Ranjan Rout
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Sampling Protocols of Different Microconstituents 56
3.2.1 Sample Preparation 56
3.2.1.1 Traditional Sampling Techniques 57
3.2.1.2 Automatic Samplers and Pumps 58
3.2.1.3 Pore-Water Sampling 58
3.2.2 Extraction of Microconstituents 58
3.2.3 Passive Sampling 60
3.2.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 62
3.2.5 Internal vs. External Quality Control 62
3.3 Quantification and Analysis of Microconstituents 63
3.3.1 Detection Techniques 63
3.3.2 UV-Visible Optical Methods 64
3.3.3 NMR Spectroscopy 65
3.3.4 Chromatographic Methods Tandem Mass Spectrometry 67
3.3.5 Biological Assay for Detection 67
3.3.6 Sensors and Biosensors for Detection 72
3.4 Source Tracking Techniques 73
3.4.1 Performance Criteria 73
3.4.2 Tracer Selection 73
3.4.3 Different Source Tracking Methods 75
3.4.4 Statistical Approaches in Source Tracking Modeling 76
3.4.4.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 76
3.4.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) 76
3.5 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications for Monitoring 77
3.5.1 Basic Concepts and Principles 77
3.5.2 Measurement and Estimation Techniques 77
3.5.3 Applications for Microconstituents Monitoring 78
3.6 Conclusions 79
4 Toxicity Assessment of Microconstituents in the Environment 89
Nagireddi Jagadeesh, Baranidharan Sundaram, and Brajesh Kumar Dubey
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Microplastics in the Environment 91
4.3 Microplastics Pathways, Fate, and Behavior in the Environment 92
4.4 Concentration of Microplastics in the Environment 94
4.5 Influence of Microplastics on Microorganisms 94
4.6 Toxicity Mechanisms 95
4.6.1 Effect on Aquatic Ecosystem 95
4.6.2 Effect on Human Health 96
4.6.3 Toxicity Testing 96
4.6.3.1 Test Without PE MPs 97
4.6.3.2 With Microbeads 97
4.6.3.3 Analysis Limitations 98
4.7 Risk Assessment 98
4.8 Future Challenges in Quantification of the Environment 99
4.9 Conclusions 99
Part II The Fate and Transportation of Microconstituents 107
5 Mathematical Transport System of Microconstituents 109
Dwarikanath Ratha, Richa Babbar, K.S. Hariprasad, C.S.P. Ojha, Manoj Baranwal, Prangya Ranjan Rout, and Aditya Parihar
5.1 Introduction 109
5.2 Need for Mathematical Models 111
5.3 Fundamentals of Pollutant Transport Modeling 112
5.4 Development of Numerical Model 117
5.4.1 Advective Transport 117
5.4.2 Dispersive Transport 120
5.4.3 Discretization in Space and Time 120
5.5 Application of Models 123
5.6 Softwares for Pollutant Transport 126
5.6.1 Hydrus Model for Pollution Transport 126
5.7 Mathematical and Computational Limitation 126
5.8 Conclusions 129
6 Groundwater Contamination by Microconstituents 133
Jiun-Hau Ou, Ku-Fan Chen, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Chih-Ming Kao
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Major Microconstituents in Groundwater 134
6.3 Mechanisms for Groundwater Contamination By Microconstituents 135
6.4 Modeling Transport of Microconstituents 136
6.5 Limitations 139
6.6 Concluding Remarks 139
7 Microconstituents in Surface Water 143
Po-Jung Huang, Fang-Yu Liang, Thakshila Nadeeshani Dharmapriya, and Chih-Ming Kao
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Major Microconstituents in Surface Water 143
7.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 143
7.2.2 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals 146
7.2.3 Industrial Chemicals 149
7.2.4 Pesticides 150
7.3 Water Cycles, Sources, and Pathways of Microconstituents, and the Applicability of Mathematical Models 152
7.3.1 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 152
7.3.2 Pesticides in Surface Water 153
7.3.3 The Applicability of Mathematical Models 155
7.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mathematical Tools 155
7.4 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments 157
7.4.1 Adsorption of Microconstituents 157
7.4.2 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Caffeine 158
7.4.3 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Steroidal Estrogen 158
7.5 Modeling of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments 161
7.5.1 BASINS System Overview 162
7.5.2 HSPF Model Evaluation (Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran Model) 164
7.5.3 Fundamental Mechanisms of SWAT Pesticide Modeling 166
7.5.3.1 SWAT Model Description 166
7.5.3.2 SWAT Model Set-Up 167
7.5.4 Model Sensitivity Analysis, Calibration, and Validation 168
7.5.4.1 Coefficient of Determination, R 2 168
7.5.4.2 Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficient, NSE 169
7.5.5 Basin Level Modeling (Pesticide Transport) 170
7.6 Conclusions 172
8 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants 181
Zong-Han Yang, Po-Jung Huang, Ku-Fan Chen, and Chih-Ming Kao
8.1 Introduction 181
8.1.1 The Sources of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants 181
8.1.2 The Behavior of Microconstituents 183
8.2 The Fate of Microconstituents in WWTPs 183
8.2.1 Traditional Wastewater Treatment Process 183
8.2.2 The Fate of MCs in WWTPs 185
8.2.3 Biodegradation of Microconstituents 186
8.2.4 Sorption Onto Sludge Solids in WWTPs 188
8.3 Treatment Methods for Microconstituents Removal 189
8.3.1 Activated Sludge Process (ASP) 189
8.3.2 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) 190
8.3.3 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) 191
8.3.4 Trickling Filter 191
8.4 Critical Parameters in WWTP Operation for MCs 191
8.4.1 ASP Operation 191
8.4.2 MBR Operation 193
8.4.3 MBBR Operation 193
8.4.4 TF Operation 194
8.5 Conclusions 194
9 Various Perspectives on Occurrence, Sources, Measurement Techniques, Transport, and Insights Into Future Scope for Research of Atmospheric Microplastics 203
Sailesh N. Behera, Mudit Yadav, Vishnu Kumar, and Prangya Ranjan Rout
9.1 Introduction 203
9.2 Classification and Properties of Microplastics 206
9.2.1 Classification of Atmospheric Microplastics 206
9.2.2 Characteristics of Atmospheric Microplastics 206
9.2.3 Qualitative Assessment to Identify Microplastics 208
9.3 Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics 209
9.4 Measurement of Atmospheric Microplastics 210
9.5 Occurrence and Ambient Concentration of Microplastics 211
9.6 Factors Affecting Pollutant Concentration 213
9.7 Transport of Atmospheric Microplastics 214
9.8 Modeling Techniques in Prediction of Fate in the Atmosphere 215
9.9 Control Technologies in Contaminant Treatment 216
9.10 Challenges in Future Climate Conditions 217
9.11 Future Scope of Research 218
9.12 Conclusions 219
10 Modeling Microconstituents Based on Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques 227
Anoop Kumar Shukla, Satyavati Shukla, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Ying-Liang Yu, and Chih-Ming Kao
10.1 Basic Components of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Models 227
10.1.1 Source of Light or Energy 228
10.1.2 Radiation and the Atmosphere 229
10.1.3 Interaction With the Subject Target 229
10.1.4 Sensing Systems 229
10.1.5 Data Collection 229
10.1.6 Interpretation and Analysis 229
10.2 Coupling GIS With 3D Model Analysis and Visualization 230
10.2.1 Modeling and Simulation Approaches 231
10.2.1.1 Deterministic Models 231
10.2.1.2 Stochastic Models 231
10.2.1.3 Rule-Based Models 232
10.2.1.4 Multi-Agent Simulation of Complex Systems 232
10.2.2 GIS Implementation 232
10.2.2.1 Full Integration-Embedded Coupling 232
10.2.2.2 Integration Under a Common Interface-Tight Coupling 233
10.2.2.3 Loose Coupling 233
10.2.2.4 Modeling Environment Linked to GIS 233
10.3 Emerging and Application 233
10.3.1 Multispectral Remote Sensing 233
10.3.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 234
10.3.3 Geographic Information System (GIS) 234
10.3.4 Applications 234
10.3.4.1 Urban Environment Management 234
10.3.4.2 Wasteland Environment 235
10.3.4.3 Coastal and Marine Environment 236
10.4 Uncertainty in Environmental Modeling 236
10.5 Future of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Pollutant Monitoring 237
10.5.1 Types of Satellite-Based Environmental Monitoring 239
10.5.1.1 Atmosphere Monitoring 239
10.5.1.2 Air Quality Monitoring 239
10.5.1.3 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) 240
10.5.1.4 Hazard Monitoring 240
10.5.1.5 Marine and Phytoplankton Studies 240
10.6 Identification of Microconstituents Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques 241
10.7 Conclusions 242
Part III Various Physicochemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents 247
11 Process Feasibility and Sustainability of Struvite Crystallization From Wastewater Through Electrocoagulation 249
Alisha Zaffar, Nageshwari Krishnamoorthy, Chinmayee Sahoo, Sivaraman Jayaraman, and Balasubramanian Paramasivan 249
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Struvite Crystallization Through Electrocoagulation 251
11.2.1 Working Principle 251
11.2.2 Types of Electrocoagulation 252
11.2.2.1 Batch Electrocoagulation 252
11.2.2.2 Continuous Electrocoagulation 254
11.2.2.3 Advantages of Electrocoagulation Over Other Methods for Struvite Precipitation 256
11.3 Influential Parameters Affecting Struvite Crystallization 257
11.3.1 pH of the Medium 257
11.3.2 Magnesium Source and Mg 2+ : PO 3- 4 Molar Ratio 258
11.3.3 Current Density 259
11.3.4 Voltage and Current Efficiency 260
11.3.5 Electrode Type and Interelectrode Distance 261
11.3.6 Stirring Speed, Reaction Time, and Seeding 262
11.3.7 Presence of Competitive Ions and Purity of Struvite Crystals 263
11.4 Energy, Economy, and Environmental Contribution of Struvite Precipitation by Electrocoagulation 264
11.5 Summary and Future Perspectives 266
12 Adsorption of Microconstituents 273
Challa Mallikarjuna, Rajat Pundlik, Rajesh Roshan Dash, and Puspendu Bhunia
12.1 Introduction 273
12.2 Adsorption Mechanism 274
12.3 Adsorption Isotherms and Kinetics 276
12.3.1 Adsorption Isotherms 276
12.3.1.1 Langmuir Isotherm 276
12.3.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm 276
12.3.1.3 Dubinin-Radushkevich Isotherm 277
12.3.1.4 Redlich-Peterson Isotherm 277
12.3.1.5 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Isotherm 278
12.3.2 Adsorption Kinetics 278
12.3.2.1 Pseudo-First-Order Equation 278
12.3.2.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Equation 279
12.3.2.3 Elovich Model 279
12.3.2.4 Intraparticle Diffusion Model 279
12.4 Factors Affecting Adsorption Processes 280
12.4.1 Surface Area 280
12.4.2 Contact Time 280
12.4.3 Nature and Initial Concentration of Adsorbate 280
12.4.4 pH 280
12.4.5 Nature and Dose of Adsorbent 281
12.4.6 Interfering Substance 281
12.5 Multi-Component Preference Analysis 281
12.6 Conventional and Emerging Adsorbents 282
12.6.1 Conventional Adsorbents 282
12.6.2 Commercial Activated Carbons 282
12.6.3 Inorganic Material 284
12.6.4 Ion-Exchange Resins 285
12.6.5 Emerging/Non-Conventional Adsorbents 285
12.6.5.1 Natural Adsorbents 286
12.6.5.2 Agricultural Wastes 287
12.6.5.3 Industrial By-Product (Industrial Solid Wastes) 287
12.6.5.4 Solid Waste-Based Activated Carbons 288
12.6.5.5 Bio-Sorbents 288
12.6.5.6 Miscellaneous Adsorbents 289
12.7 Desirable Properties and Surface Modification of Adsorbents 290
12.7.1 Desorption/Regeneration Studies 290
12.7.2 Column Studies 291
12.7.2.1 Surface Modification of Adsorbents 293
12.8 Disposal Methods of Adsorbents and Concentrate 295
12.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Adsorption 296
12.9.1 Advantages 296
12.9.2 Disadvantages 297
12.10 Conclusions 297
13 Ion Exchange Process for Removal of Microconstituents From Water and Wastewater 303
Muhammad Kashif Shahid, H.N.P. Dayarathne, Bandita Mainali, Jun Wei Lim, and Younggyun Choi
13.1 Introduction 303
13.2 Properties of Different Ion Exchange Resin 304
13.3 Functionalities of Polymeric Resins 306
13.4 Ion Exchange Mechanism 310
13.5 Ion Exchange Kinetics 312
13.6 Application of Ion Exchange for Treatment of Microconstituents 313
13.7 Summary 316
14 Membrane-Based Separation Technologies for Removal of Microconstituents 321
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Puspendu Bhunia
14.1 Introduction 321
14.2 Classification of Available MBSTs 323
14.3 Classification of Membranes and Membrane Materials and Their Properties 323
14.3.1 Classification of Membranes 323
14.3.2 Classification and Properties of Membrane Materials 329
14.3.2.1 Membrane Classification 329
14.3.2.1.1 Cellulose Derivatives 330
14.3.2.1.2 Aromatic Polyamides 330
14.3.2.1.3 Polysulphone 330
14.3.2.1.4 Polyimides 330
14.3.2.1.5 Polytetrafluoroethylene 331
14.3.2.1.6 Polycarbonates 331
14.3.2.1.7 Polypropylene 331
14.3.2.2 Cutting-Edge Membranes 331
14.4 Fundamental Principles and Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal via Different MBSTs 332
14.4.1 Fundamental Principles 332
14.4.2 Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal 351
14.4.2.1 Modes of Operation 352
14.4.2.2 Definitions of Some Frequently Used Terms in MBSTs 353
14.5 Application of the MBSTs for Removing Microconstituents From Aqueous Matrices 354
14.6 Membrane Fouling 355
14.6.1 Classification of Membrane Fouling 355
14.6.1.1 Particulate or Colloidal Fouling 356
14.6.1.2 Biological or Microbial Fouling 356
14.6.1.3 Scaling or Precipitation Fouling 356
14.6.1.4 Organic Fouling 356
14.6.2 Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling 356
14.6.3 Control of Membrane Fouling 357
14.7 Future Perspectives 358
14.8 Conclusions 358
15 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Microconstituents Removal in Aquatic Environments 367
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Puspendu Bhunia
15.1 Introduction 367
15.2 Classification of AOPs 369
15.3 Fundamentals of Different AOPs 370
15.4 Fundamentals of Individual AOPs 370
15.4.1 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Ozonation Process 370
15.4.2 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by UV-Irradiation 371
15.4.3 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Photocatalysis 371
15.4.4 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Electrochemical Oxidation (EO) or Anodic Oxidation (AO) and Sonolysis 373
15.4.5 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by the Fenton Process 373
15.5 Fundamentals of Integrated AOPs 374
15.6 Fundamentals of UV-Irradiation-Based Integrated AOPs 374
15.6.1 Uv/h 2 O 2 374
15.6.2 UV Photocatalysis/Ozonation 374
15.6.3 UV/Fenton Process 375
15.6.4 UV/Persulfate (PS) or Permonosulfate (PMS) 375
15.6.5 UV/Cl 2 376
15.7 Fundamentals of Ozonation-Based Integrated AOPs 376
15.7.1 Ozonation/H 2 O 2 376
15.7.2 Ozonation/PS or PMS 376
15.8 Fundamentals of Fenton Process-Based Integrated AOPs 376
15.8.1 Heterogeneous Fenton Process 376
15.8.2 Photo-Fenton Process 377
15.8.3 Sono-Fenton Process 377
15.9 Fundamentals of Electrochemical-Based Integrated AOPs 377
15.9.1 Electro-Fenton Process 377
15.9.2 Sono-Electro-Fenton Process 378
15.9.3 Photo-Electro-Fenton Process 378
15.10 Application of Individual/Integrated AOPs for Microconstituents Removal 378
15.10.1 PPCP Removal 378
15.10.2 Pesticide Removal 389
15.10.3 Surfactant Removal 390
15.10.4 PFAS Removal 390
15.11 Future Perspectives 390
15.12 Conclusions 392
Part IV Various Physico-Chemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents 405
16 Aerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents 407
Hung-Hsiang Chen, Thi-Manh Nguyen, Ku-Fan Chen, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
16.1 Introduction 407
16.2 Aerobic Biological Systems/Processes 408
16.2.1 High-Rate Systems 408
16.2.1.1 Suspended Growth Processes 408
16.2.1.2 Attached Growth Processes 410
16.2.2 Low-Rate Systems 411
16.3 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes 411
16.3.1 ASPs 412
16.3.2 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes 412
16.3.3 MBR and Membranes Technology 413
16.3.4 ASPs and/or Trickling Filters 413
16.3.5 Lagoons and Constructed Wetlands 413
16.3.6 Mixed Technologies 414
16.4 Aerobic Biodegradation of Selected CECs 415
16.4.1 Hormones and Their Conjugates 415
16.4.2 Nanoparticles (NPs) and Nanomaterials (NMs) 417
16.4.3 Microplastics 417
16.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 418
16.6 Conclusions 419
17 Anaerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents 427
Thi-Manh Nguyen, Hung-Hsiang Chen, Ku-Fan Chen, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
17.1 Introduction 427
17.2 Types of AD Reactors and Current Status of AD Technology 428
17.2.1 Suspended Growth Process 428
17.2.1.1 Anaerobic Contact Reactor (ACR) 429
17.2.1.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor 429
17.2.2 Attached Growth Process 430
17.2.3 AnMBRs 431
17.2.4 Current Status of AD Technology 432
17.3 Mechanisms of Pollutant Removal in AD Processes 433
17.3.1 The Hydrolysis Stage 433
17.3.2 The Acidogenesis Stage 434
17.3.3 The Acetogenesis Stage 434
17.3.4 The Methanogenesis Stage 435
17.4 AD Technology for Treatment of MCs 436
17.4.1 Key Characteristics of Selected AD Systems for MCs Removal 436
17.4.1.1 Reactor Configurations and Combinations of Different Methods 436
17.4.1.2 Removal of Different MCs and Associated Mechanisms 441
17.4.2 Biodegradation of Selected MCs in AD Processes 442
17.4.2.1 MPs 442
17.4.2.2 NMs/NPs 444
17.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 445
17.6 Conclusions 446
18 Bio-Electrochemical Systems for Micropollutant Removal 455
Rishabh Raj, Sovik Das, Manaswini Behera, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
18.1 The Concept of Bio-Electrochemical Systems 455
18.2 Bio-Electrochemical Systems: Materials and Configurations 457
18.2.1 Electrodes 457
18.2.2 Separators 460
18.3 Different Types of Bio-Electrochemical Systems 461
18.3.1 Microbial Fuel Cell 462
18.3.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 463
18.3.3 Microbial Desalination Cell 464
18.4 Performance Assessment of Bio-Electrochemical Systems 466
18.5 Pollutant Removal in Bio-Electrochemical Systems 469
18.5.1 Treatment of Different Wastewaters in Bio-Electrochemical Systems 469
18.5.2 Micropollutant Remediation 473
18.6 Scale-Up of BES 474
18.7 Challenges and Future Outlook 476
18.8 Summary 478
19 Hybrid Treatment Solutions for Removal of Micropollutant From Wastewaters 491
Monali Priyadarshini, S. M. Sathe, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
19.1 Background of Hybrid Treatment Processes 491
19.2 Types of Hybrid Processes for Microconstituents Removal 492
19.2.1 Constructed Wetlands 493
19.2.1.1 Applications 494
19.2.1.2 Constructed Wetland Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell 494
19.2.2 Combined Biological and Advanced Oxidation Processes 495
19.2.2.1 Activated Sludge Process Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process 496
19.2.2.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process 496
19.2.2.3 Bio-Electrochemical Systems and Advanced Oxidation Processes 497
19.2.2.4 Bio-Electro Fenton-Based Advanced Oxidation Processes 499
19.2.2.5 Photo-Electrocatalyst-Based Advanced Oxidation Process 500
19.2.3 Membrane Bioreactor 501
19.2.3.1 Granular Sludge Membrane Bioreactor 502
19.2.3.2 Advanced Oxidation Process Coupled Membrane Bioreactor 502
19.2.3.3 Membrane Bioreactor Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell 503
19.2.4 Electrocoagulation 504
19.3 Comparative Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Systems for Microconstituents Removal 506
19.4 Conclusions and Future Directions 507
Part V Aspects of Sustainability and Environmental Management 513
20 Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents 515
Wei-Han Lin, Jiun-Hau Ou, Ying-Liang Yu, Pu-Fong Liu, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Chih-Ming Kao
20.1 Introduction 515
20.2 Management and Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents 515
20.3 Regulations on Microconstituents 516
20.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 516
20.3.2 Microplastics 517
20.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Persistent Bioaccumulated Toxics (PBTs) 519
20.3.4 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) 520
20.4 Concluding Remarks 520
21 Laboratory to Field Application of Technologies for Effective Removal of Microconstituents From Wastewaters 525
Indrajit Chakraborty, Manikanta M. Doki, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 525
21.1 Introduction 525
21.1.1 Microconstituent Origin and Type 526
21.1.2 Refractory Nature and Corresponding Degradation Barriers of Microconstituents 527
21.2 Case Studies for Lab to Field Applications 530
21.2.1 Conventional Treatment Methods 530
21.2.2 Hybrid Treatment Methods 533
21.2.2.1 Hybrid Biochemical Processes 533
21.2.2.2 Hybrid Advanced Oxidation Processes 536
21.3 Future Outlook 540
21.4 Conclusions 540
22 Sustainability Outlook: Green Design, Consumption, and Innovative Business Model 545
Tsai Chi Kuo
22.1 Introduction 545
22.2 Sustainable/Green Supply Chain 547
22.2.1 Collaboration 547
22.2.2 System Improvements 547
22.2.3 Supplier Evaluations 548
22.2.4 Performance and Uncertainty 548
22.3 Environmental Sustainability: Innovative Design and Manufacturing 549
22.3.1 Design Improvements 549
22.3.1.1 Disassembly and Recyclability 549
22.3.1.2 Modularity Design 549
22.3.1.3 Life-Cycle Design 550
22.3.2 Green Manufacturing 550
22.3.2.1 Green Manufacturing Process and System Development 550
22.3.2.2 Recycling Technology 551
22.3.2.3 Hazard Material Control 551
22.3.2.4 Remanufacturing and Inventory Model 551
22.3.3 Summary of Environmental Sustainability 551
22.4 Economical Sustainability: Innovation Business Model 552
22.4.1 Business Model and Performance 552
22.4.2 Summary of Economic Sustainability 553
22.5 Social Sustainability 553
22.5.1 Corporate Social Responsibility 553
22.5.2 Sustainable Consumption 554
22.5.3 Brief Summary of Social Sustainability 554
22.6 Conclusions and Future Research Development 554
22.6.1 Future Research Development 555
22.6.2 Industry 4.0 in Sustainable Life 555
22.6.3 Conclusions 555
List of Abbreviations 565
Index 577
