Practical approach covering the chemistry, processes, and modeling in the field of cementing engineering
Oil and Gas Well Cementing for Engineers is a comprehensive and reader-friendly book that delves into the chemistry, processes, and modeling involved in cementing engineering in the oil and gas industry. The book brings together traditional cementing technologies and the latest advancements, providing a practical approach for both students and field specialists.
It then proceeds to cover the entire cementing process, including the initial phase of Portland cement production and practical calculations needed during complex cementing operations.
In a rapidly evolving industry, where the number of well workover and bottom-hole zone stimulation operations is on the rise, understanding cementing systems and cementing technology is crucial for field operation efficiency. This book fills the knowledge gap often left by educational institutions that fail to provide well cementing as a separate course, opting to cover only fragments of the process within related subjects.
Oil and Gas Well Cementing for Engineers serves as an essential primer for students, offering a comprehensive overview of cementing operations. For field specialists, the book provides practical insights and calculations required on-site, making it a valuable resource for enhancing operational proficiency.
The logical sequence in which the material is presented simplifies the reader’s perception, making it easier to grasp the wide range of information covered in the book. Whether you are a student or an industry professional, this practical guide offers a wealth of knowledge on cementing technology, empowering you to excel in oil and gas well construction and production processes.
Table of Contents
Foreword xiii
Introduction xv
1 Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Well Cementing 1
1.1 Oil Well, Its Elements, and Construction 1
1.2 Objectives of Well Cementing 5
1.3 Primary Cementing 9
1.3.1 Single-Stage Cementing with Two Plugs 10
1.3.2 Two-Stage (Two-Cycle) Cementing 11
1.3.3 Basket Cementing 12
1.3.4 Liner Cementing 13
1.3.5 Reverse Cementing 14
1.3.6 Cementing Plugs 14
1.4 History of Oil Well Cementing Technology Development 16
2 Composition and Classification of Portland Cement 19
2.1 Chemical Composition 19
2.2 Portland Cement Manufacturing 22
2.3 API (American Petroleum Institute) Classification of Portland Cement 24
2.4 GOST (Russian: ГОСТ) Classification of Portland Cement 29
3 Cement Additives 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Accelerators 32
3.3 Retarders 36
3.3.1 Lignosulfonates 37
3.3.2 Hydroxycarboxylic Acid 38
3.3.3 Saccharide Compounds 38
3.3.4 Cellulose Derivatives 38
3.3.5 Organophosphonates 39
3.3.6 Inorganic Compounds 39
3.4 Extenders 39
3.4.1 Clays 40
3.4.2 Sodium Silicate 43
3.4.3 Pozzolans 43
3.4.3.1 Diatomaceous Earth (Kieselgur) 44
3.4.3.2 Fly Ash 44
3.4.3.3 Lightweight Cementing Slurries 45
3.4.3.4 Silica (Silicon Dioxide, Quartz) 45
3.4.4 Lightweight Particles 46
3.4.4.1 Expanded Perlite 46
3.4.4.2 Gilsonite (Asphaltum) 46
3.4.4.3 Powdered Carbon 47
3.4.4.4 Microspheres 47
3.4.5 Gas Based Extenders 48
3.4.5.1 Nitrogen 48
3.5 Weighting Agents 48
3.5.1 Ilmenite (Iron Titanium Oxide) 49
3.5.2 Hematite 49
3.5.3 Hausmannite 49
3.5.4 Barite 50
3.6 Dispersants 50
3.7 Fluid Loss Agents 53
3.7.1 Particulate Materials 54
3.7.2 Water Soluble Polymers 54
3.8 Lost Circulation Prevention Agents 55
3.9 Special Cement Additives 55
3.9.1 Antifoaming Agents (Defoamers) 55
3.9.2 Strengthening Agents 56
3.9.3 Radioactive Tracers 56
3.9.4 Mud Decontamination 57
4 Special Cement Systems 59
4.1 Thixotropic Cement 59
4.2 Expansive Cement 61
4.3 Freeze-Protected Cement 62
4.4 Salt-Cement Systems 63
4.5 Latex-Cement Systems 64
4.6 Corrosion-Resistant Cement 65
4.7 BFS Systems 66
4.8 Engineered Particle-Size Distribution Cements 67
4.9 Low-Density Cements 69
4.9.1 Foamed Cement 69
4.10 Flexible Cement 70
4.11 Microfine Cements 71
4.12 Acid-Soluble Cements 72
4.13 Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics 72
4.14 Special Cement Systems 73
4.14.1 Nonaqueous Cement Systems 73
4.14.2 Storable Cement Slurries 73
5 Cementing Equipment 75
5.1 Surface Equipment 75
5.2 Casing Types 84
5.2.1 Conductor Casing 86
5.2.2 Surface Casing 86
5.2.3 Intermediate Casing 86
5.2.4 Production Casing 86
5.2.5 Liner 87
5.3 Technical Characteristics of Casing 88
5.3.1 Steel Grades 88
5.3.2 Strength Characteristics of Casing 91
5.3.3 Weight Per Unit Length of Tube 94
5.3.4 Connection Types of Casing 95
5.4 Casing Hardware 96
5.4.1 Casing Shoe 96
5.4.2 Check Valve 99
5.4.3 Centralizer 100
5.4.4 Turbulator and Scratcher 102
5.4.5 Cementing Plugs 103
5.4.6 Cementing Head 104
5.4.7 Screening Devices and Cement Baskets 105
5.5 Remedial Cementing Equipment 106
5.5.1 Cased - Hole Remedial Cementing Equipment 106
5.5.1.1 Packers for Squeeze Cementing Operations in Cased Wells 106
5.5.1.2 Wellbore Tools for Tubing Pressure Testing and Pressure Equalization in the String and Annulus 108
5.5.2 Open Hole Remedial Cementing Equipment 108
6 Primary Cementing 109
6.1 Planning 109
6.1.1 Depth and Design of the Well 109
6.1.2 Reservoir Conditions 113
6.1.2.1 Pressure 113
6.1.2.2 Temperature 113
6.1.3 Drilling Mud Parameters 114
6.2 Slurry Selection 114
6.2.1 Density 114
6.2.2 Compressive Strength and Mechanical Properties 115
6.2.3 Formation Temperature 115
6.2.4 Cement Slurry Additives 116
6.2.5 Cement Slurry Design 116
6.3 Theoretical Basis of Mud Displacement 117
6.3.1 Preparing the Well for Running Casing 118
6.3.2 Theoretical Basis for Assessing Circulation and Displacement Efficiency 118
6.3.3 Conditioning the Drilling Mud 120
6.3.4 Drilling Mud Displacement 122
6.4 Methods of Well Cementing 124
6.4.1 Cementing Through Drill Pipes 125
6.4.2 Cementing Through Small Diameter (Macaroni) Tubing 126
6.4.3 Single-Stage Cementing 127
6.5 Multistage Cementing 128
6.5.1 Standard Two-Stage Cementing 128
6.5.2 Continuous Two-Stage Cementing 131
6.5.3 Three-Stage Cementing 132
6.6 Liner Cementing 133
6.7 Critical Factors in Cementing Operations 138
6.7.1 Volume of Cement Slurry 138
6.7.2 Displacement of Cement Slurry 138
6.7.3 Well Temperature 139
6.7.4 Well Pressure 139
7 Remedial Cementing 143
7.1 Plug Cementing 144
7.1.1 Plug Cementing Techniques 144
7.1.1.1 The Balance Method 145
7.1.1.2 Cement Plug Installation Using a Dump Bailer 145
7.1.1.3 Cement Plug Installation Using the Two Plugs Method 146
7.1.1.4 Cement Plug Installation with the Use of Coiled Tubing 146
7.1.2 Plug Cementing Equipment 147
7.1.2.1 Bridge Plug 147
7.1.2.2 Tailpipe or Stinger 148
7.1.2.3 Diverter 148
7.1.2.4 Mechanical Separators 148
7.1.3 Slurry Design 148
7.1.4 Plug Cementing Evaluation 149
7.2 Squeeze Cementing 149
7.2.1 Squeeze Cementing Technologies 152
7.2.1.1 Classification of Squeeze Cementing Technologies According to Squeezing Pressure 152
7.2.1.2 Classification of Squeeze Cementing Technologies Depending on the Method of Injection of Cement Slurry 153
7.2.1.3 Classification of Squeeze Cementing Technologies According to the Method of Operation 154
7.2.2 Slurry Design 155
7.2.2.1 Fluid Loss 156
7.2.2.2 Rheology 157
7.2.2.3 Thickening Time 157
7.2.3 Design and Execution of Squeeze Cementing Operations 157
7.2.3.1 Determination of the Cement Slurry Volume 157
7.2.3.2 Spacer, Washer, and Displacing Fluids 158
7.2.3.3 Determination of Well Injectivity 159
7.2.3.4 Main Procedures for Squeeze Cementing Operations 159
7.2.4 Analysis and Evaluation of the Squeeze Cementing Job 160
8 Cement Job Evaluation 163
8.1 Hydraulic Testing 164
8.1.1 Pressure Test 164
8.1.2 Inflow Test 167
8.2 Temperature Log 167
8.3 Radioactive Logging 169
8.3.1 Pulsed Neutron Logging 170
8.3.1.1 Oxygen-Activated Neutron Gamma Method 171
8.4 Acoustic Logging 171
8.5 Types of Logging Tools 176
8.5.1 Cement Bond Log (CBL) 176
8.5.2 Radial Acoustic Cement Meter 177
8.5.3 Multiple Pad Sonic Tool 177
8.5.4 Ultrasonic Tool 177
9 Laboratory Testing and Evaluation of Well Cements 179
9.1 Preparation of Cement Slurry 180
9.2 Test Methods of Cement Slurries 181
9.2.1 Density 181
9.2.2 Thickening Time 182
9.2.3 Fluid Loss 186
9.2.4 Free Water 187
9.2.5 Sedimentation Test 188
9.2.6 Rheological Measurements 188
9.2.6.1 Flow Types 188
9.2.6.2 Laminar Flow 189
9.2.6.3 Turbulent Flow 190
9.2.6.4 Basic Rheological Concepts 190
9.2.6.5 Rheological Models 191
9.2.6.6 Newtonian Fluids 192
9.2.6.7 Non-Newtonian Fluids 192
9.2.6.8 Power-Law Model 193
9.2.6.9 The Bingham Model 193
9.2.6.10 Herschel-Bulkley Model 194
9.2.7 Static Gel Strength (SGS) 196
9.2.8 Flowability of Cement Slurries 197
9.3 Test Methods of Cement Stone 199
9.3.1 Mechanical Strength of Cement 199
9.3.2 Destructive Test (Compressive Strength) 199
9.3.2.1 Non-destructive Test (Ultrasonic Measurement) 200
9.3.3 Expansion and Shrinkage 200
9.3.4 Gas Migration 202
9.3.5 Cement Stone Permeability 202
9.3.6 Thermophysical Properties of Cement 202
9.3.6.1 Thermal Conductivity 203
9.3.6.2 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion 203
9.4 Laboratory Evaluation of Spacers and Washers 204
9.4.1 Compatibility of the Buffer/Washer Fluid with the Drilling Fluid and Cement Slurry 204
9.4.2 Efficiency of Wellbore Cleaning with Washer Fluid 204
9.5 Chemical Analysis of Mix Water 205
10 Typical Calculations for Well Cementing 207
10.1 Slurry Preparation Calculations 207
10.1.1 Specific Gravity of Cement Slurry 208
10.1.2 The Concept of Absolute and Bulk Volumes 208
10.1.3 Additive Concentration Calculation 209
10.1.4 Density and Yield of the Slurry 210
10.1.5 Special Additives 212
10.1.5.1 Sodium Salt 212
10.1.5.2 Fly Ash 214
10.1.5.3 Bentonite 216
10.1.5.4 Weighting Agents 218
10.2 Primary Cementing Calculation 218
10.2.1 Volume of Cement Slurry 221
10.2.2 Volume of Displacing Fluid 221
10.2.3 Pressure to Place the Cement Plug on the Stop Collar 222
10.2.4 Buoyancy 223
10.3 Remedial Cementing Calculations 225
10.3.1 Plug Cementing Calculations 225
10.3.2 Squeeze Cementing 229
Annex. Conversion Tables 237
Recommended Literature 245
Index 247
