Covers recent advances in remote sensing technology applied to the “Three Poles”, a concept encompassing the Arctic, Antarctica, and the Himalayas
Advances in Remote Sensing Technology and the Three Poles is a multidisciplinary approach studying the lithosphere, hydrosphere (encompassing both limnosphere, and oceanosphere), atmosphere, biosphere, and anthroposphere, of the Arctic, the Antarctic and the Himalayas. The drastic effects of climate change on polar environments bring to the fore the often subtle links between climate change and processes in the hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere, while unanswered questions of the polar regions will help plan and formulate future research projects.
Sample topics covered in the work include: - Terrestrial net primary production of the Arctic and modeling of Arctic landform evolution - Glaciers and glacial environments, including a geological, geophysical, and geospatial survey of Himalayan glaciers - Sea ice dynamics in the Antarctic region under a changing climate, the Quaternary geology and geomorphology of Antarctica - Continuous satellite missions, data availability, and the nature of future satellite missions, including scientific data sharing policies in different countries - Software, tools, models, and remote sensing technology for investigating polar and other environments
For postgraduates and researchers working in remote sensing, photogrammetry, and landscape evolution modeling, Advances in Remote Sensing Technology and the Three Poles is a crucial resource for understanding current technological capabilities in the field along with the latest scientific research that has been conducted in polar areas.
Table of Contents
About the Editors xvii
Notes on Contributors xx
Foreword xxv
Preface xxvi
List of Acronyms xxviii
Section I Earth Observation (EO) and Remote Sensing (RS) Applications in Polar Studies 1
1 The Three Poles: Advances in Remote Sensing in Relation to Spheres of the Planet Earth 3
Manish Pandey, Prem C. Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, Shridhar Digmabar Jawak, and Uma Kant Shukla
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Earth as a System and Components of the Earth System 4
1.1.2 Role of the “Three Poles” and the Three Poles Regions in the Earth System 4
1.1.2.1 Defining the Three Poles, Three Poles Regions, and Their Geographical Extent 4
1.1.2.2 Interaction Among Components of the Earth System and Role of the Three Poles 5
1.1.3 Advancement of RS Technologies in Relation to Their Application in the Three Poles Regions 6
1.1.3.1 Remote Sensing Technology Advancements 6
1.1.3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) in Mapping/Monitoring/Quantitative Analysis of Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 7
1.2 Aim of the Book and Its Five Sections 11
1.3 Overview of the Contributing Chapters Covering Research About Different Aspects of the Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 11
1.4 Summary and Recommendations 14
References 15
2 Continuous Satellite Missions, Data Availability, and Nature of Future Satellite Missions with Implications to Polar Regions 24
Jagriti Mishra, Takuya Inoue, and Avinash Kumar Pandey
2.1 Introduction 24
2.1.1 Types of Orbit 24
2.1.1.1 High Earth Orbit (HEO) 25
2.1.1.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 25
2.1.1.3 Semi-Synchronous Orbit 25
2.1.1.4 Molniya Orbit 25
2.1.1.5 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 25
2.1.1.6 Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit 25
2.1.1.7 Lagrange’s Point 26
2.2 Satellite Missions and Data Availability 26
2.3 Future Satellite Missions 26
2.4 Applicability of Satellite Products in Three Poles Regions 32
2.5 Challenges and Limitations 33
2.6 Summary 34
Acknowledgments 34
References 34
3 Assessing the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas 36
Prodip Mandal and Shraban Sarkar
3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 Study Area 37
3.3 Materials and Methods 38
3.3.1 Generation of Cartosat-1 DEM and Orthoimage 38
3.3.2 TanDEM-X 40
3.3.3 Alos Palsar 40
3.3.4 DGPS Survey for Obtaining Ground Control Points (GCPs) 40
3.3.5 Datum Transformation 40
3.3.6 Accuracy Assessment Methods 40
3.3.6.1 Vertical Accuracy 41
3.3.6.2 Spatial Accuracy 41
3.4 Results and Discussion 41
3.4.1 Vertical Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to GCPs 41
3.4.2 Vertical Accuracy of DEMs for Different Land Use Classes 41
3.4.2.1 Dense Forest 41
3.4.2.2 Open Forest 43
3.4.2.3 Tea Garden 43
3.4.2.4 Built-up Area 43
3.4.3 Spatial Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to Stream Networks 43
3.5 Conclusions 45
Acknowledgments 46
References 46
4 An Overview of Morphometry Software Packages, Tools, and Add-ons 49
Satarupa Mitra, Shailendra Pundir, Rahul Devrani, Aman Arora, Manish Pandey, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh
4.1 Introduction 49
4.2 Overview of Morphometry Tools and Toolboxes 50
4.3 Stand-Alone Tools 52
4.4 Tools that Run within Coding Bases 54
4.5 Conclusion 55
References 55
5 Landscape Modeling, Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics, and the Three Poles: A Review of Models, Softwares, and Tools 58
Satarupa Mitra, Rahul Devrani, Manish Pandey, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh
5.1 Introduction 58
5.2 Taxonomy 59
5.2.1 Geomorphic Process-Based Models 60
5.2.2 Classification Based on Process of Modeling 60
5.2.2.1 Based on Geomorphic Processes 60
5.2.2.2 Based on Modeling Process 60
5.3 Working Principles for Geomorphological Models 61
5.3.1 Soil Production 61
5.3.2 Hillslope Transport 62
5.3.3 Land Sliding 62
5.3.4 Fluvial Incision and Transport 62
5.3.5 Glacial Erosion 62
5.4 Landscape Evolution Models 63
5.4.1 DEM-Based Models 63
5.4.2 Siberia 63
5.4.3 Golem 64
5.4.4 Cascade 64
5.4.5 ZScape 64
5.4.6 Child 64
5.4.7 Caesar 65
5.4.8 Apero 65
5.4.9 SIGNUM (Simple Integrated Geomorphological Numerical Model) 65
5.4.10 TTLEM (TopoToolbox Landscape Evolution Model) 1.0 65
5.5 Other Models 65
5.5.1 Delim 65
5.5.2 Eros 66
5.5.3 Landscape Evolution Model Using Global Search 66
5.5.4 eSCAPE 66
5.5.5 r.sim.terrain 1.0 66
5.6 Combined/Application-Specific Models 66
5.7 Machine Learning Models 66
5.8 LEMs Developed for Glaciated Landscapes 66
5.9 Some Significant Glacier Evolution Models 68
5.10 Models Developed for Alpine Regions 71
5.11 Models Developed for the Arctic Regio 72
5.12 Models Developed for the Antarctic Region 72
5.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 75
Acknowledgment 75
Declaration of Competing Interest 75
References 76
6 Spectral Indices Across Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors Relating to the Three Poles: An Overview of Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects 83
Mallikarjun Mishra, Kiran Kumari Singh, Prem C. Pandey, Rahul Devrani, Avinash Kumar Pandey, KN Prudhvi Raju, Prabhat Ranjan, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, Saeid Janizadeh, Nguyen Thuy Linh, and Manish Pandey
6.1 Introduction 83
6.2 Database and Methodology 84
6.3 Rationale of Different Spectral Indices Across RS Sensors and Platforms 85
6.4 RS Sensors and Platforms: Characteristics (Spatial, Temporal, Spectral, and Radiometric Resolutions) 87
6.5 Most Widely and Popularly Used Spectral Indices 87
6.5.1 Spectral Indices and Lithosphere 87
6.5.2 Spectral Indices and Hydrosphere 88
6.5.3 Spectral Indices and Atmosphere 90
6.5.4 Spectral Indices and Biosphere 91
6.5.5 Spectral Indices and Anthroposphere 103
6.6 Thematic Evolution and Trends 105
6.6.1 Thematic and Network Maps 105
6.7 Summary and Recommendations 110
Acknowledgments 111
References 111
Section II Antarctica: the Southernmost Continent Having the South Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 117
7 Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica: A Remote Sensing Perspective 119
Kiledar Singh Tomar, Sangita Singh Tomar, Ashutosh Venkatesh Prasad, and Alvarinho J. Luis
7.1 Introduction 119
7.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica 120
7.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Remote Sensing 121
7.3.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using SAR Interferometry 121
7.3.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking 121
7.4 Remote Sensing Based Dynamics of PRG: A Case Study 122
7.4.1 Data and Methods 123
7.4.2 Results and Discussion 123
7.4.2.1 Ice Front Location 123
7.4.2.2 Glacier Velocity Over the Period of 2016-2019 124
7.4.3 Summary and Conclusion 124
References 125
8 Terrestrial Deglaciation Signatures in East Antarctica 128
Uday Sharma, Yogesh Ray, and Manish Pandey
8.1 Introduction 128
8.2 Geomorphology 128
8.2.1 East Antarctica 129
8.3 Landform Variation Concerning Various Sectors and Elevation 132
8.3.1 Dronning Maud Land 132
8.3.2 Enderby Land 133
8.3.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf, and Prince Elizabeth Land 133
8.3.4 Wilkes Land 135
8.4 Chronology 135
8.4.1 Dronning Maud Land 136
8.4.2 Enderby Land 137
8.4.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf ’s and Princess Elizabeth Land 137
8.4.4 Wilkes Land 138
8.5 Discussion 138
8.6 Conclusion 139
Acknowledgments 140
References 140
9 Geospatial Tools for Monitoring Vertebrate Populations in Antarctica With a Note on the Ecological Component of the Indian Antarctic Program 144
Anant Pande, Ankita Anand, Shailendra Saini, and Kuppusamy Sivakumar
9.1 Introduction 144
9.2 Novel Geospatial Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring in Antarctica 145
9.2.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 145
9.2.2 Satellite Imagery 147
9.3 Spatial Mapping of Seabirds Under the Indian Antarctic Program 149
9.4 Recommendations to Incorporate New Tools for Antarctic Wildlife Monitoring Program 151
9.5 Conclusion 152
Acknowledgments 152
References 152
10 Bryophytes of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and Future Prospects 155
Devendra Singh
10.1 Introduction 155
10.2 Study Area 156
10.3 Materials and Methods 156
10.4 Taxonomic Treatment 156
10.5 Phytosociological Studies 174
10.6 Results and Discussion 175
10.7 Future Prospects 175
Acknowledgments 177
References 177
11 Antarctic Sea Ice Variability and Trends Over the Last Four Decades 179
Swathi M., Juhi Yadav, Avinash Kumar, and Rahul Mohan
11.1 Introduction 179
11.2 Datasets and Methods 180
11.2.1 Sea Ice Extent Analysis 180
11.2.2 Analysis of Physical Parameters 181
11.3 Results and Discussion 182
11.3.1 Sea Ice Variability in the Southern Ocean 182
11.3.2 Sea Ice Distribution With Respect to Ocean-Atmospheric Temperature 182
11.4 Summary and Conclusions 187
Acknowledgments 188
References 189
Section III Himalayas: The Third Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 191
12 Some Unresolved Problems in the Himalaya: A Synoptic View 193
Om N. Bhargava
12.1 Introduction 193
12.2 Stratigraphic Ages, Basin Configuration, and Palaeontology 193
12.3 Sedimentology 195
12.4 Tectonics and Structure 195
12.5 Magmatism and Geochronology 196
12.6 Metamorphism 196
12.7 Mineral Deposits 196
12.8 Palaeomagnetic Studies 197
12.9 Glaciological Studies 197
12.10 Geomorphological Studies 197
12.11 Conclusion 198
Acknowledgments 198
References 198
13 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier, Kashmir Valley, Its Assessment With Tree-Rings of Pinus wallichiana and Comparable Satellite Imageries and Field Survey Records 203
Uttam Pandey, Santosh K. Shah, and Nivedita Mehrotra
13.1 Introduction 203
13.2 Tree-Ring Sampling Site and Data Acquisition 204
13.3 Tree-Ring Chronology and Its Assessments 206
13.4 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier: Existing Records and Its Assessment With Tree-Rings 207
13.5 Conclusions 210
Acknowledgements 210
References 210
14 Applications of ICESat-2 Photon Data in the Third Pole Environment 213
Giribabu Dandabathula
14.1 Introduction 213
14.2 Brief Background About NASA’s ICESat-2 Mission 214
14.3 Terrain Profiling From ICESat-2 Photon Elevations Over a Mountainous Region 216
14.4 Longitudinal Profiling of Rivers in a Mountainous Region 216
14.5 Inland Water Level Detection in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 216
14.6 Inferring Annual Variations of Water Levels in Mountain Lakes Using ICESat-2’s ATL13 Data Product 218
14.7 Inferring Lake Ice Phenology in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 221
14.8 Estimating Tree Heights in Mountain Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 223
14.9 Utilization of ICESat-2 Photon Data to Generate Digital Elevation Models 223
14.10 Conclusion 225
Acknowledgments 226
References 226
15 Extreme Hydrological Event-Induced Temporal Variation in Soil Erosion of the Assiganga River Basin, NW Himalaya 230
Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, Astha Dangwal, Benidhar Deshmukh, and Som Dutt
15.1 Introduction 230
15.2 Study Area 231
15.3 Methodology and Dataset 233
15.3.1 Soil Erodibility (K Factor) 234
15.3.2 Rainfall Erosivity (R Factor) 234
15.3.3 Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS Factor) 235
15.3.4 Crop Management (C Factor) and Support Practices (P Factor) 237
15.4 Results and Discussion 239
15.4.1 Pre-Post R, C, and P Variation 239
15.4.2 Soil Loss Spatial Pattern and Extent 240
15.5 Conclusion 243
Acknowledgments 243
References 243
16 Understanding the Present and Past Climate-Human-Vegetation Dynamics in the Indian Himalaya: A Comprehensive Review 247
Mehta Bulbul, Yadav Ankit, Aljasil Chirakkal, Ambili Anoop, and Praveen K. Mishra
16.1 Introduction 247
16.2 Study Site 248
16.3 Climate Vegetation Interaction in the Indian Himalaya 248
16.3.1 Present-Day Conditions 248
16.3.2 The Holocene Epoch 249
16.3.2.1 Western Himalaya 249
16.3.2.2 Eastern Himalaya 252
16.3.2.3 Central Himalaya 253
16.4 Conclusions 253
References 254
17 Flash Flood Susceptibility Mapping of a Himalayan River Basin Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Analysis and GIS 257
Pratik Dash, Kasturi Mukherjee, and Surajit Ghosh
17.1 Introduction 257
17.2 Study Area 258
17.3 Data and Methodology 259
17.3.1 Data 259
17.3.2 Multicriteria Analysis 259
17.3.3 Selection and Classification of Flood Predictors 259
17.3.4 Flood Hazard Index 260
17.3.5 Validation 260
17.4 Results and Discussion 260
17.4.1 Flood Controlling Factors 260
17.4.2 Multicriteria Analysis 264
17.4.3 Flood Susceptibility Mapping 264
17.4.4 Validation 265
17.5 Conclusion 266
References 266
18 The Role of Himalayan Frontal Thrust in the Upliftment of Kimin Formation and the Migration of Sedimentary Basin in Arunachal Himalaya, Around Bandardewa, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh 268
Mondip Sarma, Sajeed Zaman Borah, Devojit Bezbaruah, Tapos Kumar Goswami, and Upendra Baral
18.1 Introduction 268
18.2 Geology 269
18.2.1 Siwaliks of Arunachal Himalaya 269
18.2.2 Geology of the Study Area 269
18.3 Materials and Method 272
18.4 Study of Alluvial Fan 273
18.4.1 Description of Lithosections 273
18.4.1.1 Kimin Formation 273
18.4.1.2 Terrace Deposits 274
18.4.2 Grain Size Analysis 275
18.4.3 Cumulative Curve 275
18.4.4 Calculation of Size Parameters 275
18.4.4.1 Graphic Mean 275
18.4.4.2 Graphic Standard Deviations 275
18.4.4.3 Graphic Skewness 275
18.4.4.4 Graphic Kurtosis 275
18.4.5 Inter-Relationship of Size Parameters 275
18.4.6 cm Plot 278
18.5 Discussion and Conclusions 279
Acknowledgments 280
References 280
19 Himalayan River Profile Sensitivity Assessment by Validating of DEMs and Comparison of Hydrological Tools 283
Rahul Devrani, Rohit Kumar, Maneesh Kuruvath, Parv Kasana, Shailendra Pundir, Manish Pandey, and Sukumar Parida
19.1 Introduction 283
19.2 Study Area 284
19.3 Methodology (LSDTopoTools) 284
19.4 Details of DEM Datasets Used 286
19.4.1 Alos-palsar 286
19.4.2 Aster 286
19.4.3 CartoDEM 287
19.4.4 Copernicus DEM 287
19.4.5 Nasa Dem 287
19.4.6 Srtm 289
19.5 Result and Discussion 289
19.5.1 Assessment of DEMs Generated Watershed Boundary and Slope 289
19.5.2 Sensivity of Longitudinal River Profiles Using Different DEMs 289
19.6 Conclusion 295
Acknowledgments 295
References 295
20 Glacier Ice Thickness Estimation in Indian Himalaya Using Geophysical Methods: A Brief Review 299
Aditya Mishra, Harish Chandra Nainwal, and R. Shankar
20.1 Introduction 299
20.2 Geophysical Methods for Estimation of Glacier Ice Thickness 300
20.2.1 Gravity 300
20.2.2 Magnetic 300
20.2.3 Resistivity 300
20.2.4 Seismic 300
20.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar 300
20.3 Geophysical Methods in the Indian Himalaya Region 300
20.4 GPR Surveys in the Debris Covered Glaciers 302
20.5 A Case Study on Debris-Covered Satopanth Glacier 303
20.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 304
Acknowledgments 304
References 305
21 Landscapes and Paleoclimate of the Ladakh Himalaya 308
Anil Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Pradeep Srivastava
21.1 Introduction 308
21.2 Geology of the Ladakh Himalaya 308
21.2.1 Karakoram Region 310
21.3 Past Climate Variability 310
21.3.1 Early Holocene (~11.7 to 8.2 ka) 310
21.3.2 Mid-Holocene (~8.2-4.2 ka) 310
21.3.3 Late-Holocene (~4.2 ka-Present) 311
21.4 Modern Climatic and Vegetation 311
21.5 Landscapes in the Ladakh Region 312
21.6 Glaciation and Associated Landforms 315
21.7 Flood History and Disaster 315
21.8 Conclusion 316
Acknowledgment 316
References 316
22 A Review of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Soil Loss Models With a Comparative Study From the Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basin 321
Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Benidhar Deshmukh
22.1 Introduction 321
22.2 Geospatial Models 323
22.2.1 USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) 324
22.2.2 RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) 324
22.2.2.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor “R” 325
22.2.2.2 Soil Erodibility “K” 325
22.2.2.3 Slope Length and Steepness “LS” 325
22.2.2.4 Crop Management (C) 326
22.2.2.5 Support Practices “P” 326
22.2.3 MUSLE (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation) 326
22.3 A Case Study in Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins Using RUSLE Model 326
22.3.1 Study Area (Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins) 326
22.3.2 Dataset and Methodology 327
22.3.3 Rate of Soil Loss in Rishiganga Basin (RG) 328
22.3.4 Rate of Soil Loss in Lower Chambal Basin (LC) 329
22.4 Discussion 331
22.5 Conclusion 333
Acknowledgments 334
References 334
23 Wetlands as Potential Zones to Understand Spatiotemporal Plant-Human-Climate Interactions: A Review on Palynological Perspective from Western and Eastern Himalaya 340
Sandhya Misra, Anupam Sharma, Ravi Shankar Maurya, and Krishna G. Misra
23.1 Introduction 340
23.2 Importance of Wetlands 340
23.3 Climate of Himalaya 341
23.4 Vegetation Types in the Himalayan Region 341
23.5 Wetlands as Sites for Floristic Analysis 341
23.6 Wetlands as Sites for Past Vegetation-Climate-Human Interaction 342
23.7 Conclusions 347
Acknowledgments 348
References 348
24 Investigation of Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Alaknanda River Basin, Himalaya During 1976-2020 351
Varun Narayan Mishra
24.1 Introduction 351
24.2 Materials and Methods 352
24.2.1 Study Area 352
24.2.2 Data Used 352
24.2.3 Methods 353
24.2.3.1 LULC Classification Scheme 353
24.2.3.2 LULC Change Investigation 353
24.3 Results and Discussion 353
24.3.1 LULC Status 354
24.3.2 LULC Change 354
24.4 Conclusions 355
References 355
Section IV the Arctic: the Northernmost Ocean Having the North Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 357
25 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and the Himalaya: A Synoptic View from the Cryosphere Change Perspective 359
Shyam Ranjan, Manish Pandey, and Rahul Raj
25.1 Introduction 359
25.2 Cryosphere and Its Influence on Socio-Ecological-Economical (GLASOECO) System 360
25.2.1 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Agriculture and Livestock 360
25.2.2 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Ecosystem and Environment 361
25.2.3 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on the Economy 362
25.2.4 Cryospheric Change as a Risk to Energy Security 362
25.3 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic and the Antarctic Regions 363
25.3.1 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic 363
25.3.2 Hydrological Changes in the Antarctic 363
25.4 Hydrological Changes in the Third Pole (Himalaya) 363
25.4.1 Runoff Flooding 364
25.4.2 Future Hydrological Change in the Third Pole 364
25.5 Conclusion 365
Acknowledgments 365
References 365
26 High-Resolution Remote Sensing for Mapping Glacier Facies in the Arctic 371
Shridhar Digambar Jawak, Sagar Filipe Wankhede, Alvarinho J. Luis, and Keshava Balakrishna
26.1 Introduction 371
26.1.1 Glacier Facies Mapping Using Multispectral Data 372
26.1.2 Image Classification 372
26.1.3 Training Samples and Operator Skill 373
26.1.4 The Test of Operator Influence 373
26.2 The Geographical Area and Geospatial Data 374
26.3 Methodology 374
26.3.1 Radiometric Calibration and Digitization 375
26.3.2 Operator Selections 376
26.3.3 Classification and Reference Point Selection 376
26.4 Results and Discussion 376
26.5 Inferences and Recommendations 378
26.6 Conclusion 378
References 378
27 Supraglacial Lake Filling Models: Examples From Greenland 381
Prateek Gantayat
27.1 Introduction 381
27.2 Methods 381
27.2.1 Supraglacial Lake FillING (SLING) 381
27.2.2 Surface Routing and Lake Filling Model (SRLF) 383
27.2.3 Surface Routing and Lake Filling With Channel Incision (SRLFCI) 384
27.3 Study Area 384
27.4 Data Used 384
27.5 Results 386
27.5.1 Results For SLING Model 386
27.5.2 Results For SRLF Model 387
27.5.3 Results For SRLFCI Model 387
27.6 Discussion 387
27.7 Conclusions 388
Acknowledgments 388
References 388
28 Arctic Sea Level Change in Remote Sensing and New Generation Climate Models 390
S. Chatterjee, R.P. Raj, A. Bonaduce, and R. Davy
28.1 Introduction 390
28.2 Remote Sensing of Arctic Ocean Sea-Level Changes 390
28.3 Results and Discussion 392
28.3.1 Observed Trend and Variability 392
28.3.2 Arctic Ocean Sea Level and Large-Scale Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 392
28.3.3 Arctic Ocean Sea Level in CMIP6 395
28.4 Conclusions 396
Acknowledgments 398
References 398
29 Spatio-Temporal Variations of Aerosols Over the Polar Regions Based on Satellite Remote Sensing 401
Rohit Srivastava
29.1 Introduction 401
29.2 Data and Methodology 402
29.3 Results and Discussion 403
29.3.1 Seasonal Variations of Relative Humidity (RH) Over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 403
29.3.1.1 Arctic 403
29.3.1.2 Antarctic 403
29.3.2 Seasonal Variations of Winds over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 404
29.3.2.1 Arctic 404
29.3.2.2 Antarctic 405
29.3.3 Seasonal Variations of Global Fire Activities 405
29.3.4 Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Region 407
29.3.5 Seasonal Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Regions 407
29.3.5.1 Arctic 407
29.3.5.2 Antarctic 408
29.4 Conclusions 409
Acknowledgments 410
References 410
Section V the Research Institutions on the “three Poles,” Data Pools, Data Sharing Policies, Career in Polar Science Research and Challenges 413
30 Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Indian Antarctic Programme and Its International Relevance 415
Anand K. Singh, Yogesh Ray, Shailendra Saini, Rahul Mohan, and M. Javed Beg
30.1 Introduction 415
30.2 India in the International Bodies for Antarctica 415
30.3 Multi-Disciplinary Antarctic Research in the Last Decade 416
30.4 International Relevance 417
30.5 Concluding Remarks 418
References 418
31 Indian and International Research Coordination in the Arctic 420
Archana Singh, David T. Divya, and K.P. Krishnan
31.1 The Changing Arctic and Inherited Interest 420
31.2 International Research Coordination 421
31.3 Arctic Research Coordination at the National Level 422
31.4 Coordination Among Students, Young Researchers, and Educators 424
Acknowledgments 425
Declaration of Competing Interest 425
References 425
Index 427
