Battery technology is constantly changing, and the concepts and applications of these changes are rapidly becoming increasingly more important as more and more industries and individuals continue to make “greener” choices in their energy sources. As global dependence on fossil fuels slowly wanes, there is a heavier and heavier importance placed on cleaner power sources and methods for storing and transporting that power. Battery technology is a huge part of this global energy revolution.
Potassium-ion batteries were first introduced to the world for energy storage in 2004, over two decades after the invention of lithium-ion batteries. Potassium-ion (or “K-ion”) batteries have many advantages, including low cost, long cycle life, high energy density, safety, and reliability. Potassium-ion batteries are the potential alternative to lithium-ion batteries, fueling a new direction of energy storage research in many applications and across industries.
Potassium-ion Batteries: Materials and Applications explores the concepts, mechanisms, and applications of the next-generation energy technology of potassium-ion batteries. Also included is an in-depth overview of energy storage materials and electrolytes. This is the first book on this technology and serves as a reference guide for electrochemists, chemical engineers, students, research scholars, faculty, and R&D professionals who are working in electrochemistry, solid-state science, material science, ionics, power sources, and renewable energy storage fields.Table of Contents
Preface xiii
1 Phosphorous-Based Materials for K-Ion Batteries 1
Maryam Meshksar, Fatemeh Afshariani, and Mohammad Reza Rahimpour
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Principles of Potassium-Ion Batteries 5
1.2.1 Cathode Materials 6
1.2.2 Anode Materials 6
1.2.2.1 Carbon-Based Materials 8
1.2.2.2 Alloy-Based Anode Materials 9
1.3 Conclusions 13
List of Abbreviations 14
References 14
2 Antimony-Based Electrodes for Potassium Ion Batteries 19
S. Bharadwaj, M. Chaitanya Varma and Ramesh Singampalli
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Insight of Experimental Method 21
2.2.1 Synthesis Methods 21
2.2.2 Characterization Tools 22
2.2.3 Measurement Techniques 22
2.3 KIB as Batteries 23
2.3.1 Progress in KIB 23
2.4 Use of Antimony (Sb) Based K-Ion Batteries (KIB) 24
2.4.1 What Is Antimony? 24
2.4.2 Structure of Antimony Based KIB 25
2.4.3 Antimony Used in KIBs 25
2.4.4 Research Based on K-Sb Ion Batteries in the Last 5 Years 27
2.5 DFT Studies 32
2.6 Future Perceptive and Challenges 34
References 36
3 K-Ion Battery Practical Application Toward Grid-Energy Storage 43
Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Maryam Zarei, Seyyed Alireza Hashemi, Chin Wei Lai and Sonia Bahrani
3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Intercalation Reaction 50
3.3 Cathode Materials 60
3.3.1 Layered Metal Oxides 60
3.3.2 Prussian Blue Analogs 62
3.3.3 Polyanionic-Based Compounds 65
3.3.4 Organic Materials 68
3.4 Anode Materials 70
3.4.1 Carbon-Based Materials 70
3.4.2 Non-Carbonaceous Materials 73
3.4.3 Alloy-Based Materials 76
3.4.4 Organic Anodes 78
3.5 Electrolyte and Binder 81
3.6 Conclusions 83
References 83
4 Mn-Based Materials for K-Ion Batteries 99
Pallavi Jain, Palak Pant, Sapna Raghav and Dinesh Kumar
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 Anode Material 104
4.3 Cathode Materials 105
4.3.1 Manganese Layered Compounds 106
4.3.2 Manganese Based Multi-Layered Compounds 108
4.3.3 Prussian Blue Analogs 110
4.4 Electrolyte 112
4.5 Perspectives 112
4.6 Conclusion 114
Acknowledgment 115
References 115
5 Electrode Materials for K-Ion Batteries and Applications 123
M. Prakash, N. Suresh Kumar, K. Chandra Babu Naidu, M.S.S.R.K.N. Sarma, Prasun Banerjee, R. Jeevan Kumar, Ramyakrishna Pothu and Rajender Boddula
5.1 Introduction 124
5.1.1 Why Batteries? 124
5.1.2 Background of Rechargeable Batteries 125
5.1.3 Classification of Batteries 125
5.1.4 Potassium Ion Battery 127
5.2 Conclusions 133
References 134
6 Active Materials for Flexible K-Ion Batteries 137
Prasun Banerjee, Adolfo Franco Jr, K. Chandra Babu Naidu, D. Baba Basha, Ramyakrishna Pothu and Rajender Boddula
6.1 Introduction 138
6.2 Flexible Prussian Blue 138
6.3 Flexible Carbon Nanotube/Prussian Blue 139
6.4 Flexible Film From the Trace of Pencil 140
6.5 Flexible Carbon Nanofiber Mat 141
6.6 Flexible SeS2-Porous Carbon 141
6.7 Flexible ReS2-Nanofiber Carbon 142
6.8 Conclusions 143
Acknowledgments 144
References 144
7 Hollow Nanostructures for K-Ion Batteries 147
Peetam Mandal and Mitali Saha
7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 Current Scenario of Nanostructured Materials for K-Ion Batteries 148
7.3 Hollow Nanostructure Based K-Ion Batteries 150
7.3.1 Metallic Hollow Nanostructured Anodes for K-Ion Batteries 151
7.3.2 Carbonaceous Hollow Nanostructured Anodes for K-Ion Batteries 153
7.4 Conclusion 160
References 161
8 Polyanion Materials for K-Ion Batteries 167
Shankara S. Kalanur, Hyungtak Seo and Basanth S. Kalanoor
8.1 Introduction 168
8.2 Potassium-Ion Batteries 169
8.3 Cathode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries 170
8.4 Polyanionic Materials 171
8.4.1 The NASICON and Anti-NASICON Structured Polyanions 172
8.4.2 Olivine Structured Polyanion Materials 174
8.4.3 Tavorite Structured Polyanion Materials 175
8.5 Polyanions as Cathode Material for Potassium-Ion Batteries 176
8.5.1 Potassium-Based Fluorosulfates 176
8.5.2 Amorphous Potassium-Based Iron Phosphates 177
8.5.3 Potassium-Based Double Phosphates of Titanium 178
8.5.4 Potassium-Based Vanadyl Phosphates 179
8.5.5 Potassium-Based Vanadyl Flourophosphates 181
8.6 Summary and Outlook 184
References 185
9 Fundamental Mechanism and Key Performance Factor in K-Ion Batteries 191
Sapna Raghav, Pallavi Jain, Praveen Kumar Yadav and Dinesh Kumar
9.1 Introduction 192
9.1.1 Primary vs. Secondary Batteries 194
9.1.2 Classification of Secondary Potassium Batteries 195
9.2 Recognizing Potential Materials for Their Usage as a Cathode and Observing Their Storage Functionalities 195
9.3 Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries 197
9.3.1 KIB Electrolytes 198
9.3.2 Potassium Metal Batteries 199
9.3.3 K-S Battery 201
9.4 Non-Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries 202
9.4.1 Cathode 202
9.4.1.1 Hexacyanometalates (HCM) 202
9.4.1.2 Layered Oxides 202
9.4.1.3 Polyanionic Frameworks 203
9.4.1.4 Organic Crystals 203
9.4.2 Anodes 203
9.4.2.1 Graphite 204
9.4.2.2 Other Carbonaceous Materials 204
9.5 Opportunities and Challenges 205
Acknowledgments 206
References 207
10 Fabrication of the Components of K-Ion Batteries: Material Selection and the Cell Assembly Techniques Toward the Higher Battery Performance 213
Iqra Reyaz Hamdani and Ashok N. Bhaskarwar
10.1 Introduction 214
10.2 Recent Materials Studied for Cathodes 217
10.2.1 Cathodes Based on Transition-Metal Oxides 217
10.2.2 Cathodes Based on Transition-Metal Polyanions 230
10.2.3 Cathodes Based on Organic Compounds 247
10.3 Anodes 247
10.3.1 Intercalation Anodes 250
10.3.2 Conversion Anodes 265
10.3.3 Alloying Anodes 272
10.3.4 Organic Compounds 279
10.4 Electrolytes and Binders 280
10.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective 282
Acknowledgment 282
References 283
11 MXenes for K-Ion Batteries 293
Jingya Feng, Oi Lun Li, Qixun Xia and Aiguo Zhou
11.1 Introduction 293
11.2 Synthesis Method of MXene 295
11.2.1 Synthesis of Ti3C2Tx MXene 297
11.2.2 Synthesis of K2Ti4O9 (M-KTO) 298
11.2.3 Synthesis of Alkalized Ti3C2 MXene Nanosheets 299
11.3 Structure and Electrochemical Properties of MXenes 300
11.3.1 Ti3C2 MXene 300
11.3.2 K2Ti4O9 (M-KTO) 300
11.3.3 Alkalized Ti3C2 MXene Nanosheetsis as Electrode Materials 305
11.4 Summary and Outlook 307
Acknowledgments 308
References 308
12 Metal Sulfides for K-Ion Batteries 313
Xinxin Hu, Ningyuan Zhang, Nanasaheb M. Shinde, Rajaram S. Mane, Qixun Xia and Kwang Ho Kim
12.1 Introduction 314
12.2 Synthesis Approaches 315
12.2.1 SnS2-Based Composites 315
12.2.2 MoS2-Based Composites 317
12.2.3 CoS-Based Composites 319
12.2.4 Sb2S3-Based Composites 320
12.2.5 FeS2-Based Composites 321
12.2.6 Ni3S2-Based Composites 322
12.2.7 ReS2/N-CNFs 322
12.3 Structures, Properties, and K-Ion Battery Applications 324
12.3.1 SnS2-Based Composites 324
12.3.2 MoS2-Based Composites 325
12.3.3 CoS-Based Composites 326
12.3.4 Sb2S3-Based Composites 328
12.3.5 FeS2-Based Composites 329
12.3.6 Ni3S2-Based Composites 329
12.4 Summary and Outlook 331
Acknowledgments 331
References 331
13 Electrodes for Potassium Oxygen Batteries 337
Kritika S. Sharma, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar
13.1 Introduction 337
13.2 Categorization of Potassium Secondary Batteries 340
13.3 Potassium-Oxygen Battery 341
13.4 State-of-the-Art or Current Status 341
13.4.1 High Capacity Sb-Based Anode 341
13.4.2 Enhanced Cycle Life by Functionally Graded Cathode (FGC) 342
13.5 Advancement in Rechargeable Alkali Metal-O2 Cells 343
13.5.1 Metal Anodes 343
13.5.2 O2-Cathodes 346
13.5.2.1 C-Cathodes 346
13.5.2.2 Non-C-Cathodes 348
13.6 Conclusion 349
Acknowledgment 351
References 352
14 Ti-Based Materials for K-Ion Batteries 357
Rekha Sharma, Sapna Nehra and Dinesh Kumar
14.1 Introduction 357
14.2 Titanium-Based Compounds 359
14.3 Some Other Materials for KIBs Such as K2Ti8O7 and K2Ti4O9 362
14.4 Promises and Challenges of KIBs 362
14.5 Summary and Future Scenario 364
Acknowledgments 366
References 366
14.6 Summary 372
Abbreviations 372
15 Newborn Electrodes for K-Ion Batteries 373
Fatemeh Rezaei, Zeynab Rezaeian and Mohammad Reza Rahimpour
15.1 Introduction 373
15.2 Negative Electrode Materials 375
15.2.1 Carbon Based Materials 381
15.2.1.1 Graphite 381
15.2.1.2 Other Carbonaceous Materials 383
15.2.2 Alloying and Conversion Electrodes 386
15.2.3 Organic Anodes 388
15.3 Positive Electrode Materials 389
15.3.1 Layered Oxide Compounds 389
15.3.2 Hexacyanometallate Groups 394
15.3.3 Polyanionic Compounds 395
15.3.4 Organic Cathode 396
15.4 Conclusions 398
List of Abbreviations 399
References 399
Index 411
