Explore a comprehensive and state-of-the-art presentation of real-time electromagnetic transient simulation technology by leaders in the field
Real-Time Electromagnetic Transient Simulation of AC-DC Networks delivers a detailed exposition of field programmable gate array (FPGA) hardware based real-time electromagnetic transient (EMT) emulation for all fundamental equipment used in AC-DC power grids. The book focuses specifically on detailed device-level models for their hardware realization in a massively parallel and deeply pipelined manner as well as decomposition techniques for emulating large systems.
Each chapter contains fundamental concepts, apparatus models, solution algorithms, and hardware emulation to assist the reader in understanding the material contained within. Case studies are peppered throughout the book, ranging from small didactic test circuits to realistically sized large-scale AC-DC grids.
The book also provides introductions to FPGA and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) emulation procedures, and large-scale networks constructed by the foundational components described in earlier chapters. With a strong focus on high-voltage direct-current power transmission grid applications, Real-Time Electromagnetic Transient Simulation of AC-DC Networks covers both system-level and device-level mathematical models. Readers will also enjoy the inclusion of:
- A thorough introduction to field programmable gate array technology, including the evolution of FPGAs, technology trends, hardware architectures, and programming tools
- An exploration of classical power system components, e.g., linear and nonlinear passive power system components, transmission lines, power transformers, rotating machines, and protective relays
- A comprehensive discussion of power semiconductor switches and converters, i.e., AC-DC and DC-DC converters, and specific power electronic apparatus such as DC circuit breakers
- An examination of decomposition techniques used at the equipment-level as well as the large-scale system-level for real-time EMT emulation of AC-DC networks
- Chapters that are supported by simulation results from well-defined test cases and the corresponding system parameters are provided in the Appendix
Perfect for graduate students and professional engineers studying or working in electrical power engineering, Real-Time Electromagnetic Transient Simulation of AC-DC Networks will also earn a place in the libraries of simulation specialists, senior modeling and simulation engineers, planning and design engineers, and system studies engineers.
Table of Contents
About the Authors xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
List of Acronyms xxvii
1 Field Programmable Gate Arrays 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.1.1 FPGA Hardware Architecture 2
1.1.2 Configurable Logic Block 3
1.1.3 Block RAM 4
1.1.4 Digital Signal Processing Slice 4
1.2 Multiprocessing System-on-Chip Architecture 6
1.3 Communication 7
1.4 HIL Emulation 9
1.4.1 Vivado® High-Level Synthesis Tool 9
1.4.2 Vivado® Top-Level Design 11
1.4.3 Number Representation and Operations 13
1.4.4 FPGA Design Schemes 14
1.4.4.1 Pipeline Design Architecture 14
1.4.4.2 Parallel Design Architecture 14
1.4.5 FPGA Experiment 15
1.5 Summary 16
2 Hardware Emulation Building Blocks for Power System Components 17
2.1 Overview 17
2.2 Concept of HEBB 18
2.3 Numerical Integration 18
2.4 Linear Lumped Passive Elements 20
2.4.1 Model Formulation 20
2.4.1.1 Resistance R 20
2.4.1.2 Inductance L 20
2.4.1.3 Capacitance C 22
2.4.1.4 RL Branch 23
2.4.1.5 LC Branch 23
2.4.1.6 RLCG Branch 24
2.4.2 Hardware Emulation of Linear Lumped Passive Elements 26
2.5 Sources 27
2.5.1 Hardware Emulation of Sources 28
2.6 Switches 30
2.6.1 Hardware Emulation of Switches 30
2.7 Transmission Lines 32
2.7.1 Traveling Waves 32
2.7.2 Traveling Wave Model 35
2.7.2.1 Modal Transformation 36
2.7.3 Hardware Emulation of the TWM 39
2.7.3.1 Transformation Unit 39
2.7.3.2 Update Unit 39
2.7.4 Frequency Dependent Line Model 41
2.7.5 Hardware Emulation of FDLM 46
2.7.5.1 Convolution Unit 46
2.7.5.2 Update Unit 47
2.7.6 Universal Line Model 48
2.7.6.1 Frequency-Domain Formulation 48
2.7.6.2 Time-Domain Formulation 49
2.7.7 Hardware Emulation of the ULM 51
2.7.7.1 Update x Unit 52
2.7.7.2 Convolution Unit 52
2.7.7.3 Interpolation Unit 54
2.8 Network Solver 54
2.8.1 Hardware Emulation of Network Solver 55
2.8.2 Paralleled EMT Solution Algorithm 55
2.8.3 Main Control Module 58
2.8.4 Real-Time Emulation Case Study 59
2.9 Nonlinear Elements: Iterative Real-Time EMT Solver 63
2.9.1 Compensation Method 64
2.9.2 Newton-Raphson Method 65
2.9.3 Hardware Emulation of Nonlinear Solver 67
2.9.3.1 Nonlinear Function Evaluation 68
2.9.3.2 Parallel Calculation of J and F(ikm) 68
2.9.3.3 Parallel Gauss-Jordan Elimination 71
2.9.3.4 Computing vc 71
2.9.4 Case Studies 71
2.10 Summary 77
3 Power Transformers 79
3.1 Overview 79
3.2 Nonlinear Admittance-Based Real-Time Transformer Model 80
3.2.1 Linear Model Formulation 80
3.2.2 Linear Module Hardware Design 82
3.2.3 Inode Unit Module 84
3.2.4 Nonlinear Model Solution 85
3.2.4.1 Preisach Hysteresis Model 88
3.2.4.2 Nonlinear Module Hardware Design 89
3.2.5 Frequency-Dependent Eddy Current Model 90
3.2.6 Hardware Emulation of Power Transformer 91
3.2.7 Real-Time Emulation Case Studies 94
3.2.7.1 Case I 94
3.2.7.2 Case II 99
3.3 Nonlinear Magnetic Equivalent Circuit Based Real-time Multi-Winding Transformer Model 100
3.3.1 Topological ST EMT Model 102
3.3.1.1 ST Operating Principle 102
3.3.1.2 Tap-selection Algorithm 102
3.3.1.3 High-Fidelity Nonlinear MEC-Based ST Model 102
3.3.1.4 Iron Core Hysteresis and Eddy Currents 107
3.3.2 High-Fidelity Nonlinear MEC-Based ST Hardware Emulation 109
3.3.2.1 Network Transient Emulation with Embedded ST 109
3.3.3 Real-Time Emulation Case Studies 112
3.3.3.1 Finite Element Modeling and Validation 112
3.3.3.2 Case Studies 112
3.4 Real-Time Finite-Element Model of Power Transformer 123
3.4.1 Magnetodynamic Problem Formulation 123
3.4.1.1 Refined TLM Solution 126
3.4.1.2 Field-Circuit Coupling 130
3.4.2 Hardware Emulation of Finite Element Model 132
3.4.3 Case Studies 136
3.4.3.1 Results and Validation 137
3.4.3.2 Speed-up and Scalability 140
3.5 Summary 141
4 Rotating Machines 143
4.1 Overview 143
4.2 Lumped Universal Machine (UM) Model 144
4.2.1 UM Model Formulation 144
4.2.2 Interfacing UM Model with Network 146
4.2.3 UM HEBB 148
4.2.3.1 Speed & Angle Unit 149
4.2.3.2 FrmTran Unit 150
4.2.3.3 Compidq0 Unit 151
4.2.3.4 Flux & Torque Unit 151
4.2.3.5 Update & CompVc Unit 151
4.2.4 Real-Time Emulation Case Study 152
4.2.5 Overall Power System HEBB for Real-Time EMT Emulation 154
4.3 General Framework for State-Space Electrical Machine Emulation 158
4.3.1 FPGA Design Approaches for Electrical Machine Emulation 159
4.3.2 State-Space Representation of Machine Models 160
4.3.3 System Configuration on FPGA 161
4.3.3.1 Number Representation 161
4.3.3.2 Floating-Point Implementation by VHDL 162
4.3.3.3 Fixed-Point Implementation by Schematic 167
4.3.4 Evaluation of Designed Architectures 170
4.3.4.1 Real-Time Emulation Accuracy Assessment 170
4.3.4.2 Off-line Validation 171
4.3.4.3 Hardware Resource Utilization 172
4.3.5 Real-Time Emulation Case Studies 174
4.3.5.1 Case I: Induction Motor Transients 174
4.3.5.2 Case II: Synchronous Generator Transients 174
4.3.5.3 Case III: Line Start-Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Transients 176
4.3.5.4 Case IV: DC Motor Transients 177
4.4 Nonlinear Magnetic Equivalent Circuit Based Induction Machine Model 178
4.4.1 Magnetic Circuit 179
4.4.2 Interfacing of Magnetic and Electric Circuits 181
4.4.3 Electric Circuit 182
4.4.4 Nonlinear Solution of Detailed MEC 182
4.4.5 Hardware Emulation of Nonlinear MEC 183
4.4.5.1 Parallel Gauss-Jordan Elimination Unit 185
4.4.5.2 Parallel Computational Unit for Residual Vector 187
4.4.5.3 Nonlinear Evaluation Unit 187
4.4.6 Evaluation of Real-Time Emulation of Induction Machine 187
4.5 Summary 190
5 Protective Relays 193
5.1 Overview 193
5.2 Hardware Emulation of Multifunction Protection System 195
5.2.1 Signal Processing HEBB 196
5.2.1.1 CORDIC HEBB 196
5.2.1.2 Symmetrical Components HEBB 198
5.2.1.3 DFT HEBB 198
5.2.1.4 Zero-Crossing Detection HEBB 199
5.2.2 Multifunction Protective System HEBB 203
5.2.2.1 Fault Detection HEBB 203
5.2.2.2 Directional Overcurrent Protection HEBB 205
5.2.2.3 Over/Under Voltage Protection HEBB 205
5.2.2.4 Distance Protection HEBB 205
5.2.2.5 Under/Over Frequency Protection HEBB 209
5.3 Test Setup and Real-Time Results 209
5.3.1 Case I 210
5.3.2 Case II 213
5.4 Summary 214
6 Adaptive Time-Stepping Based Real-Time EMT Emulation 217
6.1 Overview 217
6.2 Nonlinear Solution and Adaptive Time-Stepping Schemes 219
6.2.1 Nonlinear Element Solution Methods 219
6.2.1.1 Newton-Raphson Method 219
6.2.1.2 Piecewise Linearization (PWL) Method 219
6.2.1.3 Piecewise N-R Method 220
6.2.2 Adaptive Time-Stepping Schemes 220
6.2.2.1 Local Truncation Error Method 220
6.2.2.2 Iteration Count Method 221
6.2.2.3 DVDT or DIDT Method 221
6.2.3 Combinations of Adaptive Time-Stepping Schemes 222
6.2.3.1 Measurements and Restrictions for Real-Time Emulation 222
6.2.4 Case Studies 223
6.2.4.1 Diode Full-Bridge Circuit 224
6.2.4.2 Power Transmission System 225
6.2.4.3 FPGA Implementation 229
6.2.4.4 Real-Time Emulation Results 234
6.3 Adaptive Time-Stepping Universal Line Model and Universal Machine Model for Real-Time Hardware Emulation 236
6.3.1 Subsystem-Based Adaptive Time-Stepping Scheme 237
6.3.2 Adaptive Time-Stepping ULM and UM Models 238
6.3.2.1 ULM Computation 238
6.3.2.2 Universal Machine Model Computation 242
6.3.3 Real-Time Emulation Case Study 243
6.3.3.1 Hardware Implementation 243
6.3.3.2 Latency and Hardware Resource Utilization 246
6.3.4 Results and Validation 247
6.3.4.1 Validation of the ULM Model 247
6.3.4.2 Real-Time Emulation Results 248
6.4 Summary 252
7 Power Electronic Switches 253
7.1 Overview 253
7.2 IGBT/Diode Nonlinear Behavioral Model 255
7.2.1 Power Diode 256
7.2.1.1 Mathematical Model 256
7.2.1.2 Hardware Module Architecture 257
7.2.2 IGBT 259
7.2.2.1 Model Formulation 259
7.2.2.2 Hardware Module Architecture 263
7.2.2.3 Multiple Parallel Devices 265
7.2.3 Electro-Thermal Network 267
7.2.4 Hardware Emulation Results 268
7.3 Physics-Based Nonlinear IGBT/Diode Model 270
7.3.1 Physics-Based Nonlinear p-i-n Diode Model 271
7.3.1.1 Model Formulation 271
7.3.1.2 Model Discretization and Linearization 272
7.3.1.3 Hardware Emulation on FPGA 274
7.3.2 Physics-Based Nonlinear IGBT Model 276
7.3.2.1 Model Formulation 276
7.3.2.2 Model Discretization and Linearization 279
7.3.2.3 Hardware Emulation on FPGA 281
7.3.3 Hardware Emulation Results 285
7.3.3.1 Test circuit 285
7.3.3.2 Results and comparison 286
7.4 IGBT/Diode Curve-Fitting Model 292
7.4.1 Linear Static Curve-fitting Model 293
7.4.1.1 Static Characteristics 293
7.4.1.2 Switching Transients 293
7.4.2 Nonlinear Dynamic Curve-fitting Model 296
7.4.3 Hardware Emulation Results 298
7.5 Summary 300
8 AC-DC Converters 301
8.1 Overview 301
8.2 Detailed Model 303
8.2.1 Detailed Equivalent Circuit Model 304
8.3 Equivalenced Device-Level Model 305
8.3.1 Power Loss Calculation 307
8.3.2 Thermal Network Calculation 309
8.3.3 Hardware Emulation of SM Model on FPGA 311
8.3.4 MMC System Hardware Emulation 314
8.3.5 Real-Time Emulation Results 316
8.3.5.1 Test Circuit and Hardware Resource Utilization 316
8.3.5.2 Results and Comparison for Single-Phase Five-Level MMC 318
8.3.5.3 Results for Three-Phase Nine-Level MMC 324
8.4 Virtual-Line-Partitioned Device-Level Models 324
8.4.1 TLM-Link Partitioning 326
8.4.2 Hardware Design on FPGA 328
8.4.2.1 Hardware Platform 329
8.4.2.2 Controller Emulation 329
8.4.2.3 MMC Emulation on FPGA 330
8.4.3 Real-Time Emulation Results 335
8.4.3.1 MMC 335
8.4.3.2 Induction Machine Driven by Five-Level MMC 342
8.5 MMC Partitioned by Coupled Voltage-Current Sources 344
8.5.1 V-I Coupling 344
8.5.2 Hardware Emulation Case of NBM-Based MMC 346
8.5.2.1 Power Converter HIL Emulation 346
8.5.2.2 HIL Emulation Results and Validation 347
8.5.2.3 Islanded MMC Performance 348
8.5.2.4 MMC-MVDC Performance 355
8.6 Clamped Double Submodule MMC 355
8.6.1 Operation Principles of CDSM 357
8.6.2 Device-Level Modeling Scheme 359
8.6.2.1 Temperature-Dependent Electrical Interface Parameter Calculation 359
8.6.2.2 Device-Level Linearized Transient Waveform Calculation 361
8.6.3 SM-Level Modeling Scheme 362
8.6.4 Converter-Level Modeling Scheme 362
8.6.5 Case Study and Hardware Implementation 363
8.6.5.1 Design Partition 365
8.6.5.2 Latency and Resource Consumption 367
8.6.6 Real-Time Emulation Results and Analysis 368
8.6.6.1 Steady-State Results 368
8.6.6.2 DC Power Flow Control 368
8.6.6.3 DC Fault Transient Results 371
8.7 Summary 374
9 DC-DC Converters 377
9.1 Overview 377
9.2 Buck-Boost Converter 379
9.2.1 System-Level Modeling 379
9.2.2 Hardware Implementation 380
9.3 Solid-State Transformer Modeling 381
9.3.1 MMC Arm Models 382
9.3.1.1 TLM-Stub Model (TLM-S) 382
9.3.1.2 Nonlinear Switch-Based Model (NSM) 383
9.3.1.3 Hybrid Arm Model 384
9.3.2 Three-Phase Saturable Transformer Model 385
9.3.3 SST EMT Model 385
9.3.4 SST HIL Emulation 386
9.3.5 SST Real-Time HIL Emulation Results 390
9.3.5.1 Device-Level Behavior 390
9.3.5.2 Converter Performance 391
9.3.5.3 System Tests 392
9.4 Summary 394
10 DC Circuit Breakers 397
10.1 Overview 397
10.2 HHB in MTDC System 399
10.2.1 MTDC Test System Schematic 399
10.2.2 DC Line Protection 401
10.2.2.1 Voltage Derivative Protection 401
10.2.2.2 Over Current Protection 401
10.3 Proactive Hybrid HVDC Breaker 402
10.3.1 HHB EMT Model 403
10.3.2 Varistor Model 404
10.3.3 General HHB Unit Model 406
10.3.4 Two-Node IGBT Models 407
10.3.5 IGBT Low-Order Nonlinear Behavioral Model 409
10.3.5.1 IGBT Fourth-Order Behavioral Model 409
10.3.5.2 Parameters Extraction 409
10.3.5.3 Sensitivity Analysis 410
10.3.5.4 Model Parallelization 411
10.3.6 Electro-Thermal Network 412
10.3.7 HHB Hardware Implementation on FPGA 412
10.3.8 HHB HIL Emulation Results 416
10.3.8.1 Device-Level Performance 416
10.3.8.2 System-Level Performance 424
10.4 Ultrafast Mechatronic Circuit Breaker 426
10.4.1 Nonlinear Device-Level Thyristor Model 426
10.4.1.1 Basic Device Characteristics 426
10.4.1.2 Scalable Cascaded Thyristor Model 428
10.4.2 UFMCB Modeling 431
10.4.3 Relaxed Scalar Newton-Raphson (RSNR) 433
10.4.4 UFMCB Hardware Design 435
10.4.5 UFMCB Real-Time Tests and Validation 438
10.4.5.1 Four-Terminal DC Grid Test Case 438
10.4.5.2 UFMCB Design Evaluation by HIL System 438
10.4.5.3 UFMCB in HVDC Grid 442
10.5 Summary 444
11 Large-Scale AC and DC Networks 447
11.1 Overview 447
11.2 Spatial Decomposition and Parallelism 449
11.2.1 Functional Decomposition for Large-Scale Real-Time Emulation 449
11.2.2 Hardware Module Parallelism 451
11.3 Multi-FPGA Hardware Design for Real-Time EMT Emulation 453
11.3.1 Case I: 3-FPGA Hardware Design 454
11.3.2 Case II: 10-FPGA Hardware Design 457
11.3.3 Performance and Scalability of the Real-Time EMT Emulator 460
11.4 CIGRÉ DC Grid Hybrid Modeling Methodology 465
11.4.1 Network Topology 467
11.4.2 Control Scheme 467
11.4.3 Hybrid Modeling Methodology 468
11.4.3.1 Device-Level Electrothermal Model 469
11.4.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Model 469
11.4.3.3 Average Value Model 471
11.4.3.4 Transmission Line Model 471
11.4.4 Real-Time MPSoC-FPGA Based DC Grid Emulator 471
11.4.4.1 System Decomposition 471
11.4.4.2 Hardware Resource Allocation and Task Partitioning 472
11.4.4.3 Design and Implementation 474
11.4.5 Real-Time Emulation Results and Validation 475
11.4.5.1 Steady-State Operation 475
11.4.5.2 Power Flow Command Change 477
11.4.5.3 DC Fault 477
11.5 Real-Time Co-Emulation Framework for Cyber-Physical Systems 479
11.5.1 Communication Network Simulation and Co-Simulation 481
11.5.2 Real-Time Co-Emulation Framework 484
11.5.2.1 RTCE Hardware Architecture 484
11.5.3 Hardware Implementation of RTCE 487
11.5.3.1 Multi-Board EMT Emulation 488
11.5.3.2 Communication Protocol and Implementation 489
11.5.4 Real-Time Emulation Results and Verification 491
11.5.4.1 Processing Delay and Hardware Resource Cost 491
11.5.4.2 Case Study 1: Over-Current Fault 492
11.5.4.3 Case Study 2: Communication Link Failure 493
11.6 Faster-Than-Real-Time Hybrid Dynamic-EMT Emulation of AC-DC Grids 495
11.6.1 Flexible Time-Stepping Algorithm for Dynamic Emulation 496
11.6.1.1 Transient Stability Emulation Methodology 496
11.6.1.2 Local Equipment Based Flexible Time-stepping 497
11.6.2 AC-DC Grid Component Modeling 498
11.6.2.1 AC-DC Grid Interface 498
11.6.2.2 AC Grid Modeling 499
11.6.2.3 DC Grid Modeling 501
11.6.3 FTRT Emulation on FPGAs 503
11.6.4 FTRT Emulation Results and Validation 505
11.6.4.1 Three-Phase-to-Ground Fault 506
11.6.4.2 Generator Outage and Sudden Load Change 507
11.7 Summary 510
Bibliography 513
Appendix A Parameters for Case Studies 531
A.1 Chapter 2 531
A.1.1 Case in Section 2.7 531
A.1.2 Cases in Section 2.8 531
A.2 Chapter 3 531
A.2.1 Cases in Section 3.2 531
A.2.1.1 Cases Study I 531
A.2.1.2 Cases Study II 532
A.2.2 Cases in Section 3.3 532
A.2.2.1 Transformer 532
A.2.2.2 System 532
A.2.3 Cases in Section 3.4 532
A.3 Chapter 4 533
A.3.1 UM Case in Section 4.2 533
A.3.2 Cases in Section 4.3 534
A.3.2.1 State-Space Matrices of Rotating Machines 534
A.3.2.2 Parameters of Rotating Machines 538
A.3.3 MEC Case in Section 4.4 538
A.4 Chapter 5 538
A.5 Chapter 6 539
A.5.1 Cases in Section 6.2 539
A.5.2 Cases in Section 6.3 540
A.6 Chapter 7 540
A.7 Chapter 8 541
A.7.1 Equivalenced Device-Level Model in Section 8.3 541
A.7.2 MMC-IM Case in Section 8.4 541
A.7.3 MVDC Case in Section 8.5 541
A.7.4 MTDC Case in Section 8.6 541
A.8 Chapter 9 541
A.9 Chapter 10 542
A.9.1 HHB Case 542
A.9.2 UFMCB Case 542
A.10 Chapter 11 543
A.10.1 CIGRÉ B4 DC Grid Test System 543
Index 545
