An instructive and up-to-date pretreatment and industrial applications of oil producing plants
Biorefinery of Oil Producing Plants for Value-Added Products is a two-volume set that delivers a comprehensive exploration of oil producing plants, from their availability to their pretreatment, bioenergy generation, chemical generation, bioproduct generation, and economic impact. The distinguished team of editors has included a wide variety of highly instructive resources written by leading contributors to the field.
This set explores the current and future potential of bioenergy production to address the energy and climate crisis, as well as the technologies used to produce materials like biogas, biodiesel, bioethanol, biobutanol, biochar, fuel pellets, and biohydrogen. It also discusses the production of biobased chemicals, including bio-oil, biosurfactants, catanionic surfactants, glycerol, biovanillin, bioplastic, and plant-oil based polyurethanes.
Concluding with an insightful analysis of the economic effects of oil producing plants, the set also offers readers: - A thorough introduction to the availability of oil producing plants, including palm oil, castor oil, jatropha, nyamplung, and coconut - A comprehensive exploration of the pretreatment of oil producing plants, including the physical, chemical and biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass - Practical discussion of the generation of bioenergy, including biogas generation in the palm oil mill and biodiesel production techniques using jatropha - In-depth examinations of the generation of biobased chemicals, including those produced from the tobacco plant
Perfect for researchers and industry practitioners involved with the biorefinery of oil producing plants, Biorefinery of Oil Producing Plants for Value-Added Products also belongs in the libraries of undergraduate and graduate students studying agriculture, chemistry, engineering, and microbiology.
Table of Contents
Volume 1
Preface xvii
About the Editors xix
1 A Glance On Oil Producing Plants, Pretreatment and Bioenergy Production Using Oil Producing Plant 1
Suraini Abd-Aziz and Misri Gozan
References 9
Part I Availability of Oil Producing Plants 11
2 Demand and Sustainability of Palm Oil Plantation 13
Suraini Abd-Aziz, Misri Gozan, Mohamad Faizal Ibrahim, and Lai-Yee Phang
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Production and Consumption of Global Palm Oil Industry 14
2.3 Major Hindrances in Sustainability Considerations 17
2.3.1 Environmental Issues 18
2.3.2 Socioeconomic Issues 19
2.4 Future Sustainability Implications of the World Largest Palm Oil Producers 20
2.4.1 Indonesia 21
2.4.2 Malaysia 22
2.5 Sustainable Versus Unsustainable Palm Oil Toward Carbon Neutral Emissions 23
2.6 Conclusions 24
References 25
3 Planting and Harvesting Jatropha 29
Penjit Srinophakun, Anna Saimaneerat, and Vipa Hongtrakul
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 KUBP 78-9 and KUBP 202 Varieties 30
3.2.1 Plant Spacing 31
3.2.2 Plantation Layout and Data Collection 31
3.2.3 Fertilizer Application 33
3.2.4 Cutting Management 35
3.2.5 Weed Control 35
3.2.6 Insect, Pest, and Disease Control 37
3.3 Jatropha Performance 38
3.3.1 Plant Height and Canopy Width 38
3.3.2 First Flowering Day 40
3.3.3 Rainfall 41
3.3.4 Harvesting 43
3.3.5 Seed Yield and Weight of 100-Seed 45
3.4 Conclusions 47
Acknowledgments 47
References 47
4 Castor Oil (Ricinus communis) 51
Is Fatimah, Suresh Sagadevan, Baranya Murugan, and Oki Muraza
4.1 Source and Cultivation of the Castor Plant 51
4.2 Castor Oil Production 54
4.2.1 Cultivating and Harvesting Ricinus communis 54
4.2.2 Extraction of Castor Oil 57
4.2.3 Refining of Castor Oil 59
4.2.4 Standardization of Castor Oil 60
4.3 Castor Oil Products 60
4.3.1 Hydrogenated Castor Oil 60
4.3.2 Biodiesel from Castor Oil 61
4.3.3 Polymer from Castor Oil 67
4.3.4 Plasticizer from Castor Oil 67
4.3.5 Biolubricant from Castor Oil 69
4.3.6 Pharmaceutical Solvent from Castor Oil 72
4.4 Conclusions 73
References 73
5 Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) Oil 79
Nurul Sabrena Hanafi, Misri Gozan, and Suraini Abd-Aziz
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) 80
5.2.1 Characteristic of Nyamplung Seed Oil 81
5.2.2 Extraction of Nyamplung Seed Oil 82
5.2.2.1 Mechanical Extraction 83
5.2.2.2 Solvent Oil Extraction (Chemical Extraction) 83
5.2.3 Applications of Nyamplung Seed Oil 83
5.2.3.1 Medicinal Purposes 84
5.2.3.2 Cosmetic Ingredient 84
5.2.3.3 Biodiesel 85
5.3 Potential of Nyamplung Seed Oil as Biolubricant 86
5.3.1 Reactions Involved in Biolubricants Manufacturing 86
5.3.1.1 Transesterification 86
5.3.1.2 Epoxidation 87
5.3.2 Emerging Area of Biolubricant Industries Using Alternative Oil/Seed Oil 88
5.3.2.1 Applications of Biolubricant 89
5.3.2.2 Chemical Modification of Biolubricant 89
5.4 Conclusions 91
References 92
6 Coconut Oil 99
Muhammad A. Darmawan, Kiman Siregar, and Misri Gozan
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Extraction Process of Coconut Oil 100
6.2.1 Dry Extraction Process 100
6.2.1.1 Coconut Testa Oil 102
6.2.1.2 Copra Oil 102
6.2.2 Coconut Refining Process 102
6.2.2.1 Chemical Refining Process 102
6.2.2.2 Physical Refining Process 103
6.2.3 Wet Extraction Process 103
6.2.3.1 Heat and Cold Extraction of Virgin Coconut Oil 103
6.2.3.2 Fermentation and Enzymatic Process of Virgin Coconut Oil 104
6.3 Physicochemical and Chemical Compositions of Coconut Oil 105
6.4 The Properties of Coconut Fruit 108
6.5 Health Benefits of Virgin Coconut Oil 111
6.5.1 Virgin Coconut Oil Effects on Artery Disease 111
6.5.2 Antioxidant Activity of Virgin Coconut Oil 111
6.5.3 Antidiabetic Activity of Virgin Coconut Oil 112
6.5.4 Antimicrobial Activity of Virgin Coconut Oil 112
6.6 Coconut Oil as Fuel 112
6.7 Coconut Oil as Cooking Oil 113
6.8 Productivity and Problems in Coconut Plantation 114
6.8.1 Productivity of Coconut Plantation in Indonesia 114
6.8.2 Problems of Coconut Plantation and Industry in Indonesia 115
6.9 Conclusions 116
References 116
Part II Pretreatment 123
7 Efficient Physical and Chemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 125
Liping Tan, Jian Zhao, and Yinbo Qu
7.1 Introduction 125
7.2 Type of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment 126
7.2.1 Bisulfite Pretreatment 126
7.2.2 Formiline Pretreatment 128
7.2.3 Hydrothermal Pretreatment 128
7.2.4 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) Pretreatment 129
7.2.5 Comparison of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment Methods 130
7.2.6 Combinations of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment 133
7.3 Conclusions 135
Acknowledgment 135
References 135
8 Ionic Solution Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 141
Chien-Yuan Su, Wei-Chun Hung, Chiung-Fang Liu, Bo-Jhih Lin, and Hou-Peng Wan
8.1 Overview of Biomass Hydrolysis 141
8.1.1 Acid Hydrolysis 143
8.1.2 Ionic Liquid Hydrolysis 144
8.1.2.1 Development and Principle of Ionic Liquid Hydrolysis 144
8.1.2.2 Ionic Solution Hydrolysis 145
8.2 Case Study of Ionic Solution Hydrolysis 147
8.2.1 Feedstock Analysis and Dissolution Efficiency 147
8.2.2 Sugar Yields from Various Biomass via Ionic Solution Hydrolysis 150
8.2.3 Purification of Hydrolysis Products 151
8.2.3.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151
8.2.3.2 Reactive Distillation 151
8.2.3.3 Ion Exclusion Chromatography and Membrane Filtration 153
8.2.4 Comparison of Hydrolysis Pretreatment Technologies and Summary 155
Acknowledgment 157
References 157
9 Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 161
Sehanat Prasongsuk, Wichanee Bankeeree, Pongtharin Lotrakul, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Hunsa Punnapayak
9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 Microorganisms and Enzymes Involved in Biological Pretreatment 162
9.2.1 Fungal Pretreatment 164
9.2.2 Enzymatic Pretreatment 165
9.3 Factors Affecting Biological Pretreatment 168
9.3.1 Cultivation Condition 168
9.3.2 Incubation Time 168
9.3.3 Moisture Content 168
9.3.4 pH and Temperature 168
9.4 Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass into Value-Added Products 169
9.4.1 Bioconversion into Fermentable Sugar for Bioethanol Production 169
9.4.2 Biogas Production 171
9.5 Conclusions 172
Acknowledgment 173
References 173
10 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes 179
Adriana C. Lee, Mohamad Faizal Ibrahim, and Suraini Abd-Aziz
10.1 Introduction 179
10.2 Lignin Types and Structures 180
10.3 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes (LDEs) 181
10.3.1 Lignin Peroxidase or Ligninase (LiP) 181
10.3.2 Manganese Peroxidase (MnP) 183
10.3.3 Versatile Peroxidase (VP) 185
10.3.4 Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidases (DyPs) 185
10.3.5 Laccase 186
10.3.6 New Enzymatic Delignification Activities 189
10.3.6.1 β-Etherases (Glutathione-Dependent Lignin-Degrading Enzyme) 189
10.3.6.2 Biphenyl-Binding Enzyme Cleavage Systems 190
10.3.6.3 Enzyme O-Demethylation Networks 190
10.3.6.4 Activities of General Oxidative 190
10.4 Application of LDE in Biorefinery Pretreatment 191
10.5 Conclusions 194
References 194
11 Enzymes for Hemicellulose Degradation 199
Wichanee Bankeeree, Sehanat Prasongsuk, Pongtharin Lotrakul, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Hunsa Punnapayak
11.1 Introduction 199
11.2 Hemicellulolytic Enzymes 200
11.3 Xylanolytic Enzyme Classification 201
11.4 Catalytic Mechanisms 204
11.5 Sources and Properties of Xylanolytic Enzymes 205
11.5.1 Bacterial Xylanolytic Enzymes 205
11.5.2 Fungal Xylanolytic Enzymes 207
11.6 Potential Biotechnological Applications 209
11.6.1 Biorefinery 209
11.6.2 Pulp and Paper Industry 211
11.6.3 Biotransformation 212
11.7 Conclusions 213
Acknowledgment 214
References 214
12 Cellulase from Oil Palm Biomass 221
Jeong Eun Hyeon and Sung Ok Han
12.1 Biological Pretreatment and Cellulase 221
12.2 Cellulases 222
12.2.1 Endoglucanase (1,4-D-glucan-4-glucanohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.4) 223
12.2.2 Exocellobiohydrolase (1,4-D-glucan glucohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.74) 224
12.2.3 β-Glucosidase (D-glucoside glucohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.21) 225
12.3 Synergistic Effect by Combination of Various Cellulases 226
12.3.1 Cellulosome 226
12.3.2 Artificial Cellulosome 229
12.4 Industrial Strain for Cellulases Production 230
12.4.1 Cellulases Production by Fungal Cellulase System 230
12.4.2 Cellulases Production by Bacterial Cellulase Systems 232
12.5 Conclusions 233
Acknowledgment 233
References 234
Part III Generation of Bioenergy 239
13 Biogas Generation in the Palm Oil Mill 241
Muhammad Y. Arya, Muhammad A. Kholiq, Udin Hasanudin, and Misri Gozan
13.1 Introduction 241
13.2 POME Characterization 243
13.3 POME Pretreatment 243
13.3.1 Acidified POME 246
13.3.2 Ash Addition 246
13.3.3 Coagulation-Flocculation 248
13.3.4 De-oiling 248
13.3.5 Dissolved Air Flotation 249
13.3.6 POME Sedimentation 249
13.3.7 Thermal Pretreatment 249
13.3.8 Other Pretreatments 249
13.4 Digester Type 250
13.4.1 Anaerobic Pond/Lagoon 250
13.4.2 Anaerobic Filtration 251
13.4.3 Fluidized Bed Reactor 253
13.4.4 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) 253
13.4.5 Anaerobic Baffled Reactor 253
13.5 Operating Conditions 253
13.5.1 Substrate Characterization 253
13.5.2 pH and Alkalinity 254
13.5.3 Organic Loading Rate (OLR) and Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) 254
13.5.4 Temperature 255
13.5.5 Other Operating Conditions 256
13.6 Biogas Purification 257
13.7 Conclusions 257
References 258
14 Biodiesel Refinery from Jatropha 265
Penjit Srinophakun, Anusith Thanapimmetha, and Maythee Saisriyoot
14.1 Introduction 265
14.2 Jatropha Biodiesel 265
14.2.1 Biodiesel Standard 273
14.2.2 Oxidation Stability 273
14.2.3 The Changes of Biodiesel Properties During Long-Term Storage 278
14.3 Conclusions 281
Acknowledgment 282
References 283
15 Bioethanol from Oil Producing Plants 287
Yu-Shen Cheng, Kittipong Rattanaporn, and Malinee Sriariyanun
15.1 Introduction 287
15.2 Plant Components Derived from Oil Producing Plants as the Biomass Resources 290
15.2.1 Oil Producing Plants 290
15.2.2 Oil Meals/Cakes Derived from Oilseed as Lignocellulosic Biomass 291
15.2.3 Other Lignocellulosic Residues Derived from Oil Plants 293
15.3 Conversion of Oil Plant-Derived Lignocellulosic Biomass to Bioethanol 294
15.3.1 Structure of Lignocellulosic Biomass Derived from Oil Plants 294
15.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolyses 296
15.3.3 Bioethanol Production from Oil Producing Plant 299
15.4 Conclusions 300
References 300
16 Biobutanol Production from Oil Palm Biomass 307
Mohamad Faizal Ibrahim, Nor A. Shaharuddin, Nurul H. Alias, Mohd A. Jenol, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Lai-Yee Phang
16.1 Introduction 307
16.2 Oil Palm Biomass 308
16.3 Biobutanol 310
16.4 Biobutanol Production 312
16.4.1 Biobutanol-Producing Bacteria 312
16.4.1.1 Clostridium sp. 312
16.4.1.2 Lactobacillus 314
16.4.1.3 Escherichia coli 315
16.4.2 Factors Affecting Biobutanol Production 315
16.4.2.1 Effect of Nitrogen Source 315
16.4.2.2 Effect of pH 315
16.4.2.3 Effect of Temperature 316
16.4.2.4 Effect of Carbon Source 316
16.5 Biobutanol Production from Oil Palm Biomass 317
16.6 Conclusions 320
References 321
17 Biochar from Oil Palm Biomass 325
Z. Nahrul Hayawin and Juferi Idris
17.1 Introduction 325
17.2 Oil Palm Biomass in Malaysia 326
17.3 Oil Palm Biochar Production 326
17.3.1 Mechanistic Aspects of Pyrolysis 326
17.3.2 Pyrolysis Process Parameters Affecting the Quality and Quantity of Biochar Production 327
17.3.3 Technologies for Biochar Production 329
17.3.3.1 Conventional Pyrolysis 329
17.3.3.2 Microwave Pyrolysis 329
17.3.4 Application of Biochar 331
17.3.4.1 Environmental Remediation 331
17.3.4.2 Agricultural Application 331
17.3.4.3 Energy Purposes 332
17.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 333
17.4.1 Safety Consideration and Environmental Impacts in the Application of Biochar 333
17.4.2 Safety Consideration and Environmental Impact in Handling and Storing Oil palm Biomass Feedstock 334
17.4.3 Safety Consideration and Environmental Impacts in Biochar Production by Pyrolysis Process 334
17.5 Biochar Utilization and Marketing 335
17.5.1 Quality of Biochar 335
17.5.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Biochar 335
17.5.3 Adsorption Capacity 336
17.5.4 Economic Analysis 336
17.5.5 Major Challenges in Promoting Biochar 337
17.5.5.1 Cost and Production Complications 337
17.5.5.2 Environmental Factors 338
17.5.5.3 Public Acceptance 338
17.5.5.4 Marketability and Commercialization Issues 339
17.6 Conclusions 339
References 339
18 Fuel Pellet from Oil Producing Plants 345
Rizal Alamsyah
18.1 Introduction 345
18.2 Production of Fuel Pellet 347
18.2.1 Energy and Proximate Analysis 347
18.2.2 Size Reduction and Screening 348
18.2.3 Drying and Weighing 348
18.2.4 Mixing 349
18.2.5 Pelletizing 349
18.2.6 Cooling and Packing 349
18.3 Pellet Quality 350
18.3.1 Ash Content 350
18.3.2 Ash Melting Temperature 351
18.3.3 Length, Diameter, and Bulk Density 351
18.3.4 Dust 352
18.3.5 Caloric Value and Moisture Content 352
18.3.6 Mechanical Durability 352
18.3.7 Nitrogen, Sulfur, Chlorine Content, and Heavy Metals 353
18.4 Pilot Plant-Scale Biomass Pellet Experiment 353
18.5 Gasification of Biomass Pellets to Produce Synthetic Gas (Syngas) and Emission Test 356
18.5.1 Gasification 356
18.5.2 Emissions Test 357
18.6 Biomass Pellet Processing Equipment 359
18.6.1 Chaff Cutter 359
18.6.2 Hammer Mill 361
18.6.3 Cyclone Dust Collector 361
18.6.4 Paddle Mixer 362
18.6.5 Pellet Machine (Pelletizer) 362
18.6.6 Cooler 363
18.6.7 Packing Machine (Bagging Scale) 364
18.7 Conclusions 364
References 364
19 Biohydrogen from Palm Oil Mill Effluent 369
Safa Senan Mahmod, Peer Mohamed Abdul, and Jamaliah Md. Jahim
19.1 Introduction 369
19.2 Biohydrogen-Producing Bacteria 371
19.3 Strategies to Increase Biohydrogen Production from POME 374
19.3.1 Operating Conditions Optimization: Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Temperature on Biohydrogen Production 374
19.3.1.1 Effect of Temperature 374
19.3.1.2 Effect of Different Hydraulic Retention Times (HRTs) 376
19.3.2 Microbial Cells Immobilization 378
19.3.3 Roles of Additives 380
19.4 Conclusions 383
19.5 Acknowledgments 383
References 383
Volume 2
Preface xiii
About the Editors xv
20 A Glance on the Generation of Biobased Chemicals, Bioproducts and Economic Analysis of Oil Producing Plant 387
Misri Gozan and Suraini Abd-Aziz
Part IV Generation of Biobased Chemicals 397
21 Bio-oil from Tobacco Plant 399
Andre F.P. Harahap, Ahmad Fauzantoro, and Misri Gozan
22 Biosurfactant from Oil Producing Plant 421
Zaharah Ibrahim, Siti Halimah Hasmoni, Shafinaz Shahir, Lai-Yee Phang, Nurashikin Ihsan, and Madihah Md Salleh
23 Palm Catanionic Surfactant for Drug Delivery Application 445
Wen Huei Lim, Xiou Shuang Yong, Lai-Yee Phang, and Noorjahan Banu Alitheen
24 Glycerol and Derivatives 469
Erliza Hambali, Rista Fitria, and Vonny I. Sari
25 Biovanillin from Oil Palm Biomass 493
Suraini Abd-Aziz, Mohd Azwan Jenol, and Illy Kamaliah Ramle
26 Diacids from Oil Producing Plant 515
Is Fatimah, Ganjar Fadillah, Oki Muraza, and Teuku M.I. Mahlia
27 Bioplastic Production from Oil Producing Plants 543
Lai-Yee Phang, Mitra Mohammadi, Mohd Azwan Jenol, and Misri Gozan
28 Plant Oil-Based Polyurethane 563
K. H. Badri and Amamer Redhwan
29 Bioresins from Oil Producing Plants 587
Misri Gozan, Agustino Zulys, and Hosta Ardhyananta
Part V Generation of Other Bioproducts 605
30 Biocompost from Oil Producing Plants 607
Adibah Yahya, Nurshafika Abd Khalid, and Madihah Md Salleh
31 Animal Feed from Oil Producing Plants 631
Siswa Setyahadi
32 Amino Acids from Oil Producing Plants 653
Huszalina Hussin, Nurul S. Hanafi, Adriana C. Lee, Madihah Md Salleh, Shu-Cuen Sam, and Suraini Abd-Aziz
Part VI Economics Analysis of Oil Producing Plants 673
33 Technical and Economic Aspects of Oil Producing Plants 675
Misri Gozan and Lai-Yee Phang
34 Economic Impact 699
Nugroho A. Sasongko and Rachmawan Budiarto
Index 723
