This comprehensive book describes the design, synthesis, mechanisms, characterization, fundamental properties, functions and development of self-healing smart materials and their composites with their allied applications. It covers cementitious concrete composites, bleeding composites, elastomers, tires, membranes, and composites in energy storage, coatings, shape-memory, aerospace and robotic applications. The 21 chapters are written by researchers from a variety of disciplines and backgrounds.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
1 Self-Healing Polymer Coatings 1
Facundo I. Altuna and Cristina E. Hoppe
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Extrinsic Self-Healing Polymer Coatings 5
1.3 Intrinsic Self-Healing Polymer Coatings 13
1.4 Remote Activation of Self-Healing 21
1.5 Perspectives and Challenges 26
References 27
2 Smart Phenolics for Self-Healing and Shape Memory Applications 39
Baris Kiskan and Yusuf Yagci
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Self-Healable Polybenzoxazines 42
2.3 Benzoxazine Resins for Shape Memory Applications 51
2.4 Conclusion 57
References 58
3 Self-Healable Elastomers 65
Mariajose Cova Sánchez, Daniela Belén García, Mariano Martin Escobar and Marcela Mansilla
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Self-Healing in Elastomers 67
3.2.1 Self-Healing Mechanism 68
3.2.1.1 Heat Stimulated Self-Healing 68
3.2.1.2 Light Stimulated Self-Healing 68
3.2.1.3 Mechanochemical Self-Healing 68
3.2.1.4 Encapsulation 69
3.2.2 Characterization of Healing Process 70
3.3 Particular Cases in Different Elastomers 71
3.3.1 Natural Rubber (NR) 71
3.3.2 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) 76
3.3.3 Polybutadiene Rubber 79
3.3.4 Bromobutyl Rubber 81
3.3.5 Silicones 84
3.3.6 Polyurethanes 89
References 92
4 Self-Healable Tires 99
Norazlianie Sazali, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed and Zul Adlan Mohd Hir
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 Self-Healable Rubber 102
4.3 Promising Strategy for Self-Healing Rubber-Based Material 103
4.4 Conclusion 113
References 113
5 Self-Healing Bacterial Cementitious Composites 123
R. Preetham, R. Hari Krishna, M.N. Chandraprabha and R. Sivaramakrishna
5.1 Introduction 124
5.2 Biomineralization for Self-Healing 130
5.2.1 Bacteria as Self-Healing Agent 130
5.2.2 Bacterial Metabolic Pathway in Self-Healing 131
5.2.2.1 Urea Hydrolysis by Ureolytic Bacteria 132
5.2.2.2 Hydrolysis of CO2 by Carbonic Anhydrase Producing Bacteria 133
5.2.2.3 Hydrolysis of Organic Acids 134
5.2.2.4 Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction 134
5.2.2.5 Dissimilatory Sulfate Reduction 135
5.2.2.6 Ammonification 135
5.3 Strategies to Enhance the Performance of Bacterial Self-Healing 139
5.4 Evaluation of Factors Affecting Bacterial Self-Healing 141
5.4.1 Nutrient Suitability for Optimal Bacterial Growth 142
5.4.2 Viability and Activity of Encapsulated Spores 143
5.4.3 Evaluation of Encapsulation Material 143
5.4.4 Crack Healing Efficiency 144
5.4.5 Effects of Capsule Material and Bacteria
on Concrete Properties 146
5.5 Conclusion, Future Prospective & Challenges 146
References 147
6 Self-Healable Solar Cells: Recent Insights and Challenges 153
Seyyed Alireza Hashemi, Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Sonia Bahrani, Seeram Ramakrishna, Chin Wei Lai and Wei-Hung Chiang
6.1 Introduction 154
6.2 Functional Mechanism of Protection Approaches 155
6.2.1 Self-Healable Polymeric Structure 155
6.2.2 Shape Memory Polymeric Structure 156
6.2.3 Self-Cleanable Polymeric Platforms 157
6.3 Advanced Self-Healable Polymeric Materials 159
6.3.1 Self-Healable Polymers 159
6.3.2 Self-Healable Hydrogels 165
6.4 Shape Memory Materials 168
6.5 Self-Healable Solar Cells 169
6.6 Conclusions 175
References 175
7 Self-Healable Core-Shell Nanofibers 181
Sonia Bahrani, Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Seyyed Alireza Hashemi, Chin Wei Lai and Wei-Hung Chiang
7.1 Introduction 182
7.2 Self-Healing Polymers in Fabrication of Core-Shell Nanofibers 183
7.3 Strategies for Core-Shell Nanofibers Fabrication 184
7.3.1 Capsule-Based Self-Healing 185
7.3.2 Vascular-Based Self-Healing 187
7.4 Methods of Fabrication of Self-Healing Core-Shell Nanofibers 188
7.4.1 Co-Electrospinning 188
7.4.2 Emulsion Electrospinning 190
7.4.3 Solution‐Blown 194
7.5 Self-Healing in Laminated Composite 194
7.6 Beneficial Self-Repairing Systems on Basis of Core-Shell Nanofibers 196
7.7 Conclusion 197
References 197
8 Intrinsic Self-Healing Materials 203
Angelita Cristiane Saul and João Henrique Zimnoch dos Santos
8.1 Introduction 203
8.2 Inverse Reactions and Chain Recombination 205
8.3 Reversible (Covalent) Bonds 205
8.3.1 Cycloadditions 206
8.3.2 Reversible Acylhydrazones 211
8.3.3 Disulfides 216
8.3.4 Alkoxyamines (Radicals) 218
8.3.5 Transesterification 222
8.4 Supramolecular Interactions 223
8.4.1 Hydrogen Bonds 224
8.4.2 π-π Interaction 225
8.4.3 Ionomers (Ballistic Stimulus) 226
8.4.4 Metallopolymers 227
8.5 Conclusion 229
References 229
9 Self-Healable Catalysis 237
Bilge Coşkuner Filiz
9.1 Introduction 237
9.2 Self-Healable Catalysis Applications 239
9.2.1 Oxygen Evolution Catalysts 239
9.2.2 Specific Catalysis Applications of Self-Healing Property 243
9.3 Conclusion 244
References 244
10 Self-Healing Materials in Corrosion Protection 247
Eiman Alibakhshi, Bahram Ramezanzadeh and Mohammad Mahdavian
10.1 Introduction 248
10.2 Self-Healing Definition 249
10.3 Inhibition of the Corroded Regions Thanks to the Presence of Corrosion Inhibitive Pigments/Inhibitors 251
10.4 The Imprisonment and Physical Release of the Inhibitor 256
10.4.1 Ion-Exchange Based Materials 257
10.4.2 Porous-Structure and Metal Oxide Materials 268
10.4.3 Conductive Polymers 269
10.4.4 Fibril Materials 270
10.4.5 Lamellar-Structure Materials 271
10.4.6 Other Containers 274
10.5 Healing Using Polymerizable Agents 275
10.6 Conclusion and Outlook 276
References 278
11 Self-Healable Conductive Materials 297
M. Ramesh, L. Rajeshkumar, D. Balaji, V. Bhuvaneswari and S. Sivalingam
11.1 Introduction 298
11.2 Self-Healing Materials 298
11.2.1 Elastomers 298
11.2.2 Reversible Materials 303
11.3 Self-Healing Conductive Materials 304
11.3.1 Polymers 304
11.3.2 Capsules 306
11.3.3 Liquids 308
11.3.4 Composites 309
11.3.5 Coating 311
11.4 Conclusion 313
References 313
12 Self-Healable Artificial Skin 321
Younus Raza Beg, Gokul Ram Nishad and Priyanka Singh
12.1 Introduction 321
12.2 Preparation and Properties of Artificial Skin 322
12.3 Applications of Electronic Skin 335
12.4 Conclusion 341
References 342
13 Self-Healing Smart Composites 345
Sithara Gopinath, Suresh Mathew and P. Radhakrishnan Nair
13.1 Introduction 345
13.2 Self-Healing Mechanisms and its Classifications 346
13.2.1 Intrinsic Self-Repairing Materials 348
13.2.2 Extrinsic Self-Repairing Materials 350
13.3 Self-Healing of Thermoplastic Materials 352
13.4 Self-Healing of Thermosetting Materials 354
13.5 Conclusions and Future Study 355
References 356
14 Stimuli-Responsive Self-Healable Materials 361
G. Jerald Maria Antony, S. Raja and S.T. Aruna
14.1 Self-Healing Materials 362
14.2 Synthesis of S-H Materials 364
14.3 Types of S-H Materials 365
14.4 Need for Stimuli-Responsive Shape Memory (S-RSM) Materials 367
14.5 Stimuli-Responsive or Nonautonomous S-H Materials 368
14.5.1 Light Stimuli-Responsive S-H Materials 369
14.5.2 Thermal Stimuli-Responsive S-H Materials 370
14.5.3 Chemical Stimuli-Responsive S-H Materials 371
14.5.4 Electric/Magnetic Stimuli-Responsive S-H Materials 372
14.5.5 Multi-Stimuli Responsive S-H Material 373
14.6 Commercialization and Challenges 374
14.7 Conclusions 375
References 375
15 Mechanically-Induced Self-Healable Materials 379
M. Ramesh, L. Rajeshkumar and R. Saravanakumar
15.1 Introduction 380
15.2 Mechanically-Induced Self-Healing Based on Gel 380
15.3 Mechanically-Induced Self-Healing Based on Crystals 386
15.4 Mechanically-Induced Self-Healing Based on Composites 389
15.5 Mechanically-Induced Self-Healing for Corrosion 394
15.5.1 Capsule-Based Self-Healing Approaches for Corrosion Protection 394
15.5.2 Fiber-Based Self-Healing Approaches for Corrosion Protection 398
15.6 Conclusion 399
References 400
16 Self-Healing Materials in Robotics 405
Sunny Kumar
16.1 Introduction 405
16.2 Chemistry of Self-Healing (S-H) Materials 406
16.3 Working of Self-Healing (S-H) Material 407
16.4 Application of Self-Healing Robots 407
16.4.1 Self-Healing Electronics for Soft Robotics 407
16.4.2 Self-Healing Electrostatic Actuators 408
16.4.3 Self-Healing Skin for Robotics 408
16.5 Approaches to Self-Healing 408
16.6 Material Application and Damage Resilience Mechanism 410
16.7 Conclusion 410
References 412
17 Self-Healing Materials in Aerospace Applications 415
M. Harikrishna Kumar, C. Moganapriya, A. Moha Kumar, R. Rajasekar and V. K. Gobinath
17.1 Introduction 415
17.2 Classification of Self-Healing Materials 417
17.2.1 Intrinsic Mechanism 417
17.2.2 Extrinsic Mechanism 418
17.2.2.1 Microencapsulation 418
17.2.2.2 Microvascular Network 419
17.3 Self-Healing Materials in Aerospace Applications 420
17.3.1 Fiber Reinforced Polymers 421
17.3.2 Modified Epoxy 425
17.3.3 Ceramic Matrix Composites 428
17.4 Conclusion 431
References 432
18 Bio-Inspired Self-Healable Materials 435
Archita Sharma and Shailendra Kumar Arya
18.1 Introduction 436
18.1.1 Self-Healable Materials and Coatings 439
18.1.1.1 The Process of Self-Healing Through the Exploitation of Micro-Capsule and Micro-Vascular Method 439
18.1.1.2 Self-Healing Process Through Reversible Covalent Bond Formation 442
18.1.1.3 Self-Healable Systems on the Basis of Supramolecular Self-Assembly 444
18.1.2 Mechanism of Self-Healing Materials 445
18.2 Repairing and Healing the Damage 448
18.3 A Systematic Biomimetic Approach 448
18.4 Self-Healable Materials: Case Studies 449
18.4.1 Regrowth of Limbs 449
18.4.2 The Mechanism of Bone Healing 451
18.4.3 Cutaneous Wound Healing 452
18.5 Applications of Bio-Inspired Self-Healable Materials - Examples 453
18.5.1 Bio-Inspired Ionic Skin for Pressure Sensing 453
18.5.2 Self-Healable Synthetic Vascular Materials Concerning Internal Damage 456
18.5.3 Biobased Self-Healable Color Hydrogel 458
18.5.4 Bio-Inspired Support for Repairing Damaged Articular Cartilage 461
18.6 Conclusions and Outlook 464
References 465
19 Self-Healable Batteries 475
Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Maryam Zarei, Seyyed Alireza Hashemi, Wei-Hung Chiang, Chin Wei Lai and Sonia Bahrani
19.1 Introduction 476
19.2 Development of Self-Healing Materials 478
19.3 Self-Healing Batteries 481
19.3.1 Self-Healable Electrodes 481
19.3.2 Self-Healable Electrolytes 483
19.4 Conclusions 487
References 488
20 Self-Healing in Bleeding Composites 495
Lutfur Rahman, Ata Ullah, Muhammad Bilal Yazdani, Muhammad Irfan, Waheed S. Khan and Asma Rehman
20.1 Introduction 496
20.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Self-Healing Materials and Their Repairing Approaches 498
20.3 Strategies of Self-Healing in Engineered Materials 499
20.3.1 Materials With Bioinspired Self-Healing Mechanism 499
20.3.2 Self-Healing in Composite Materials Based on Biomimetic Approaches 502
20.3.3 Vascular Networks 502
20.4 Healing Agents, Comparison With Biological Phenomenon and Bleeding Mechanism in Self-Healing Composite Materials 503
20.4.1 Compartmentalization, Recovery After Yield and Reinforce Repair 506
20.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Repairing Bleeding Composite Materials 507
20.6 Conclusion 508
References 508
21 Self-Healing Polymers 511
Muhammad Akram, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Adrish Sohail, Iram Ghaffar, Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Hina Anwar, Musa Abidemi Muhibi, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Umme Laila and Mathew Olaniyan
21.1 Introduction 512
21.2 General Overview on Self-Healing Materials 513
21.3 Design of Self-Healing 515
21.3.1 Modes of Action of Self-Healing 515
21.3.2 Rearrangement of Surface Dynamics 516
21.3.3 Bringing the Surfaces Together 516
21.3.4 Wetness 516
21.3.5 Diffusion 516
21.4 Application of Self-Healing Materials 517
21.4.1 Properties of Self-Healing 518
21.4.2 Advancement in Self-Healing 518
21.4.3 Classification of Self-Healing 519
21.4.4 Healing Mechanism Types of Healing 519
21.4.4.1 Crack Filling Healing Process 519
21.4.4.2 Diffusion 521
21.4.4.3 Bond Reformation 521
21.4.4.4 Application 521
21.5 Specific Examples of Self-Healing Polymer 522
21.5.1 Intrinsic Self-Healing 522
21.5.2 Extrinsic Self-Healing 522
21.5.3 One Capsule System 522
21.5.4 Self-Healing Based on Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization 522
21.5.5 Solvent-Induced Self-Healing 523
21.5.6 Dual-Capsule Systems 523
21.5.6.1 Polydimethylsiloxane Condensation 524
21.5.6.2 Platinum-Catalyzed Hydrosilylation 524
21.5.6.3 Adaptive Resistant Effect 524
21.6 Conclusion and Recommendations 525
References 525
Index 531
