Microgrid technology is an emerging area, and it has numerous advantages over the conventional power grid. A microgrid is defined as Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and interconnected loads with clearly defined electrical boundaries that act as a single controllable entity concerning the grid. Microgrid technology enables the connection and disconnection of the system from the grid. That is, the microgrid can operate both in grid-connected and islanded modes of operation. Microgrid technologies are an important part of the evolving landscape of energy and power systems.
Many aspects of microgrids are discussed in this volume, including, in the early chapters of the book, the various types of energy storage systems, power and energy management for microgrids, power electronics interface for AC & DC microgrids, battery management systems for microgrid applications, power system analysis for microgrids, and many others.
The middle section of the book presents the power quality problems in microgrid systems and its mitigations, gives an overview of various power quality problems and its solutions, describes the PSO algorithm based UPQC controller for power quality enhancement, describes the power quality enhancement and grid support through a solar energy conversion system, presents the fuzzy logic-based power quality assessments, and covers various power quality indices.
The final chapters in the book present the recent advancements in the microgrids, applications of Internet of Things (IoT) for microgrids, the application of artificial intelligent techniques, modeling of green energy smart meter for microgrids, communication networks for microgrids, and other aspects of microgrid technologies.
Valuable as a learning tool for beginners in this area as well as a daily reference for engineers and scientists working in the area of microgrids, this is a must-have for any library.
Table of Contents
Foreword xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
1 A Comprehensive Review on Energy Management in Micro-Grid System 1
Sanjay Kumar, R. K. Saket, Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban and Jens Bo Holm-Nielsen
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Generation and Storage System in MicroGrid 6
1.2.1 Distributed Generation of Electrical Power 6
1.2.2 Incorporation of Electric Car in Micro-Grid as a Device for Backup 7
1.2.3 Power and Heat Integration in Management System 8
1.2.4 Combination of Heat and Electrical Power System 9
1.3 System of Energy Management 10
1.3.1 Classification of MSE 10
1.3.1.1 MSE Based on Conventional Sources 10
1.3.1.2 MSE Based on SSE 10
1.3.1.3 MSE Based on DSM 11
1.3.1.4 MSE Based on Hybrid System 11
1.3.2 Steps of MSE During Problem Solving 11
1.3.2.1 Prediction of Uncertain Parameters 12
1.3.2.2 Uncertainty Modeling 12
1.3.2.3 Mathematical Formulation 12
1.3.2.4 Optimization 13
1.3.3 Micro-Grid in Islanded Mode 13
1.3.3.1 Objective Functions and Constraints of System 13
1.3.4 Micro-Grid Operation in Grid-Connected Mode 14
1.3.4.1 Objective Functions and Constraints of the Systems 14
1.4 Algorithms Used in Optimizing Energy Management System 16
1.5 Conclusion 19
References 20
2 Power and Energy Management in Microgrid 25
Jayesh J. Joglekar
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Microgrid Structure 26
2.2.1 Selection of Source for DG 27
2.2.1.1 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 27
2.2.1.2 Mathematical Modeling of PAFC Fuel Cell 27
2.3 Power Flow Management in Microgrid 31
2.4 Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller (GUPFC) 33
2.4.1 Mathematical Modeling of GUPFC 34
2.5 Active GUPFC 38
2.5.1 Active GUPFC Control System 39
2.5.1.1 Series Converter 40
2.5.1.2 Shunt Converter 42
2.5.2 Simulation of Active GUPFC With General Test System 43
2.5.3 Simulation of Active GUPFC With IEEE 9 Bus Test System 43
2.5.3.1 Test Case: 1 - Without GUPFC and Without Fuel Cell 45
2.5.3.2 Test Case: 2 - Without GUPFC and With Fuel Cell 47
2.5.3.3 Test Case: 3 - With GUPFC and Without Fuel Cell 48
2.5.3.4 Test Case: 4 - With GUPFC and With Fuel Cell 49
2.5.3.5 Test Case: 5 - With Active GUPFC 49
2.5.4 Summary 52
2.6 Appendix General Test System 53
2.6.1 IEEE 9 Bus Test System 53
References 55
3 Review of Energy Storage System for Microgrid 57
G.V. Brahmendra Kumar and K. Palanisamy
3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 Detailed View of ESS 60
3.2.1 Configuration of ESS 60
3.2.2 Structure of ESS With Other Devices 60
3.2.3 ESS Classifications 62
3.3 Types of ESS 62
3.3.1 Mechanical ESS 62
3.3.2 Flywheel ESS 63
3.3.3 CAES System 64
3.3.4 PHS System 65
3.3.5 CES Systems 66
3.3.6 Hydrogen Energy Storage (HES) 67
3.3.7 Battery-Based ESS 68
3.3.8 Electrical Energy Storage (EES) System 71
3.3.8.1 Capacitors 71
3.3.8.2 Supercapacitors (SCs) 72
3.3.9 SMES 73
3.3.10 Thermal Energy Storage Systems (TESS) 74
3.3.10.1 SHS 75
3.3.10.2 Latent 75
3.3.10.3 Absorption 75
3.3.10.4 Hybrid ESS 76
3.4 Comparison of Current ESS on Large Scale 77
3.5 Importance of Storage in Modern Power Systems 77
3.5.1 Generation Balance and Fluctuation in Demand 77
3.5.2 Intermediate Penetration of Renewable Energy 77
3.5.3 Use of the Grid 80
3.5.4 Operations on the Market 80
3.5.5 Flexibility in Scheduling 80
3.5.6 Peak Shaving Support 80
3.5.7 Improve the Quality of Power 81
3.5.8 Carbon Emission Control 81
3.5.9 Improvement of Service Efficiency 81
3.5.10 Emergency Assistance and Support for Black Start 81
3.6 ESS Issues and Challenges 81
3.6.1 Selection of Materials 82
3.6.2 ESS Size and Cost 82
3.6.3 Energy Management System 83
3.6.4 Impact on the Environment 83
3.6.5 Issues of Safety 83
3.7 Conclusion 84
Acknowledgment 85
References 85
4 Single Phase Inverter Fuzzy Logic Phase Locked Loop 91
Maxwell Sibanyoni, S.P. Daniel Chowdhury and L.J. Ngoma
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 PLL Synchronization Techniques 92
4.2.1 T/4 Transport Delay PLL 95
4.2.2 Inverse Park Transform PLL 96
4.2.3 Enhanced PLL 97
4.2.4 Second Order Generalized Integrator Orthogonal Signal Generator Synchronous Reference Frame (SOGI-OSG SRF) PLL 98
4.2.5 Cascaded Generalized Integrator PLL (CGI-PLL) 99
4.2.6 Cascaded Delayed Signal Cancellation PLL 100
4.3 Fuzzy Logic Control 101
4.4 Fuzzy Logic PLL Model 103
4.4.1 Fuzzification 103
4.4.2 Inference Engine 105
4.4.3 Defuzzification 108
4.5 Simulation and Analysis of Results 110
4.5.1 Test Signal Generator 110
4.5.2 Proposed SOGI FLC PLL Performance Under Fault Conditions 113
4.5.2.1 Test Case 1 113
4.5.2.2 Test Case 2 114
4.5.2.3 Test Case 3 115
4.5.2.4 Test Case 4 115
4.5.2.5 Test Case 5 116
4.5.2.6 Test Case 6 117
4.6 Conclusion 118
Acknowledgment 118
References 119
5 Power Electronics Interfaces in Microgrid Applications 121
Indrajit Sarkar
5.1 Introduction 122
5.2 Microgrid Classification 122
5.2.1 AC Microgrid 122
5.2.2 DC Microgrids 124
5.2.3 Hybrid Microgrid 126
5.3 Role of Power Electronics in Microgrid Application 127
5.4 Power Converters 128
5.4.1 DC/DC Converters 128
5.4.2 Non-Isolated DC/DC Converters 129
5.4.2.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 130
5.4.3 Isolated DC/DC Converters 135
5.4.4 AC to DC Converters 137
5.4.5 DC to AC Converters 139
5.5 Conclusion 143
References 143
6 Reconfigurable Battery Management System for Microgrid Application 145
Saravanan, S., Pandiyan, P., Chinnadurai, T., Ramji, Tiwari., Prabaharan, N., Senthil Kumar, R. and Lenin Pugalhanthi, P.
6.1 Introduction 146
6.2 Individual Cell Properties 147
6.2.1 Modeling of Cell 147
6.2.1.1 Second Order Model 147
6.2.2 Simplified Non-Linear Model 148
6.3 State of Charge 149
6.4 State of Health 150
6.5 Battery Life 150
6.6 Rate Discharge Effect 151
6.7 Recovery Effect 152
6.8 Conventional Methods and its Issues 152
6.8.1 Series Connected 152
6.8.2 Parallel Connected 154
6.9 Series-Parallel Connections 154
6.10 Evolution of Battery Management System 155
6.10.1 Necessity for Reconfigurable BMS 156
6.10.2 Conventional R-BMS Methods 156
6.10.2.1 First Design 157
6.10.2.2 Series Topology 158
6.10.2.3 Self X Topology 158
6.10.2.4 Dependable Efficient Scalable Architecture Method 159
6.10.2.5 Genetic Algorithm-Based Method 160
6.10.2.6 Graph-Based Technique 161
6.10.2.7 Power Tree-Based Technique 162
6.11 Modeling of Reconfigurable-BMS 163
6.12 Real Time Design Aspects 164
6.12.1 Sensing Module Stage 165
6.12.2 Control Module Stage 165
6.12.2.1 Health Factor of Reconfiguration 166
6.12.2.2 Reconfiguration Time Delay and Transient Load Supply 166
6.12.3 Actuation Module 167
6.12.3.1 Order of Switching 167
6.12.3.2 Stress and Faults of Switches 169
6.12.3.3 Determining Number of Cells in a Module 170
6.13 Opportunities and Challenges 171
6.13.1 Modeling and Simulation 171
6.13.2 Hardware Design 171
6.13.3 Granularity 171
6.13.4 Hardware Overhead 172
6.13.5 Intelligent Algorithms 172
6.13.6 Distributed Reconfigurable Battery Systems 172
6.14 Conclusion 173
References 173
7 Load Flow Analysis for Micro Grid 177
Sivaraman Palanisamy, Dr. Sharmeela Chenniappan and Dr. S. Elango
7.1 Introduction 177
7.1.1 Islanded Mode of Operation 178
7.1.2 Grid Connected Mode of Operation 178
7.2 Load Flow Analysis for Micro Grid 179
7.3 Example 179
7.3.1 Power Source 180
7.4 Energy Storage System 180
7.5 Connected Loads 182
7.6 Reactive Power Compensation 182
7.7 Modeling and Simulation 182
7.7.1 Case 1 182
7.7.2 Case 2 184
7.7.3 Case 3 187
7.7.4 Case 4 189
7.7.5 Case 5 191
7.8 Conclusion 193
References 195
8 AC Microgrid Protection Coordination 197
Ali M. Eltamaly, Yehia Sayed Mohamed, Abou-Hashema M. El-Sayed and Amer Nasr A. Elghaffar
8.1 Introduction 197
8.2 Fault Analysis 200
8.2.1 Symmetrical Fault Analysis 201
8.2.2 Single Line to Ground Fault 202
8.2.3 Line-to-Line Fault 204
8.2.4 Double Line-to-Ground Fault 206
8.3 Protection Coordination 208
8.3.1 Overcurrent Protection 209
8.3.2 Directional Overcurrent/Earth Fault Function 211
8.3.3 Distance Protection Function 214
8.3.4 Distance Acceleration Scheme 217
8.3.5 Under/Over Voltage/Frequency Protection 219
8.4 Conclusion 221
Acknowledgment 224
References 224
9 A Numerical Approach for Estimating Emulated Inertia With Decentralized Frequency Control of Energy Storage Units for Hybrid Renewable Energy Microgrid System 227
Shubham Tiwari, Jai Govind Singh and Weerakorn Ongsakul
9.1 Introduction 228
9.2 Proposed Methodology 231
9.2.1 Response in Conventional Grids 231
9.2.2 Strategy for Digital Inertia Emulation in Hybrid Renewable Energy Microgrids 232
9.2.3 Proposed Mathematical Formulation for Estimation of Digital Inertia Constant for Static Renewable Energy Sources 235
9.3 Results and Discussions 238
9.3.1 Test System 238
9.3.2 Simulation and Study of Case 1 241
9.3.2.1 Investigation of Scenario A 241
9.3.2.2 Investigation of Scenario B 243
9.3.2.3 Discussion for Case 1 245
9.3.3 Simulation and Study of Case 2 246
9.3.3.1 Investigation of Scenario A 246
9.3.3.2 Investigation of Scenario B 248
9.3.3.3 Discussion for Case 2 250
9.3.4 Simulation and Study for Case 3 250
9.3.4.1 Discussion for Case 3 251
9.4 Conclusion 252
References 253
10 Power Quality Issues in Microgrid and its Solutions 255
R. Zahira, D. Lakshmi and C.N. Ravi
10.1 Introduction 256
10.1.1 Benefits of Microgrid 257
10.1.2 Microgrid Architecture 257
10.1.3 Main Components of Microgrid 258
10.2 Classification of Microgrids 258
10.2.1 Other Classifications 259
10.2.2 Based on Function Demand 259
10.2.3 By AC/DC Type 259
10.3 DC Microgrid 260
10.3.1 Purpose of the DC Microgrid System 260
10.4 AC Microgrid 261
10.5 AC/DC Microgrid 262
10.6 Enhancement of Voltage Profile by the Inclusion of RES 263
10.6.1 Sample Microgrid 263
10.7 Power Quality in Microgrid 267
10.8 Power Quality Disturbances 270
10.9 International Standards for Power Quality 270
10.10 Power Quality Disturbances in Microgrid 271
10.10.1 Modeling of Microgrid 271
10.11 Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) Design 272
10.11.1 Reference Current Generation 274
10.12 Control Techniques of SAPF 276
10.13 SPWM Controller 277
10.14 Sliding Mode Controller 277
10.15 Fuzzy-PI Controller 278
10.16 GWO-PI Controller 279
10.17 Metaphysical Description of Optimization Problems With GWO 281
10.18 Conclusion 284
References 285
11 Power Quality Improvement in Microgrid System Using PSO-Based UPQC Controller 287
T. Eswara Rao, Krishna Mohan Tatikonda, S. Elango and J. Charan Kumar
11.1 Introduction 288
11.2 Microgrid System 289
11.2.1 Wind Energy System 290
11.2.1.1 Modeling of Wind Turbine System 290
11.2.2 Perturb and Observe MPPT Algorithm 291
11.2.3 MPPT Converter 291
11.3 Unified Power Quality Conditioner 293
11.3.1 UPQC Series Converter 293
11.3.2 UPQC Shunt APF Controller 295
11.4 Particle Swarm Optimization 297
11.4.1 Velocity Function 297
11.4.2 Analysis of PSO Technique 298
11.5 Simulation and Results 299
11.5.1 Case 1: With PI Controller 300
11.5.2 Case 2: With PSO Technique 301
11.6 Conclusion 304
References 305
12 Power Quality Enhancement and Grid Support Using Solar Energy Conversion System 309
CH. S. Balasubrahmanyam, Om Hari Gupta and Vijay K. Sood
12.1 Introduction 309
12.2 Renewable Energy and its Conversion Into Useful Form 312
12.3 Power System Harmonics and Their Cause 313
12.4 Power Factor (p.f.) and its Effects 316
12.5 Solar Energy System With Power Quality Enhancement (SEPQ) 317
12.6 Results and Discussions 320
12.6.1 Mode-1 (SEPQ as STATCOM) 320
12.6.2 Mode-2 (SEPQ as Shunt APF) 320
12.6.3 Mode-3 (SEPQ as D-STATCOM) 322
12.7 Conclusion 326
References 327
13 Power Quality Improvement of a 3-Phase-3-Wire Grid-Tied PV-Fuel Cell System by 3-Phase Active Filter Employing Sinusoidal Current Control Strategy 329
Rudranarayan Senapati, Sthita Prajna Mishra, Rajendra Narayan Senapati and Priyansha Sharma
13.1 Introduction 330
13.2 Active Power Filter (APF) 333
13.2.1 Shunt Active Power Filter (ShPF) 334
13.2.1.1 Configuration of ShPF 334
13.2.2 Series Active Power Filter (SAF) 335
13.2.2.1 Configuration of SAF 336
13.3 Sinusoidal Current Control Strategy (SCCS) for APFs 337
13.4 Sinusoidal Current Control Strategy for ShPF 342
13.5 Sinusoidal Current Control Strategy for SAF 349
13.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 353
13.6.1 Operation 354
13.6.2 Anode 355
13.6.3 Electrolyte 355
13.6.4 Cathode 356
13.6.5 Comparative Analysis of Various Fuel Cells 356
13.7 Simulation Analysis 356
13.7.1 Shunt Active Power Filter 358
13.7.1.1 ShPF for a 3-φ 3-Wire (3P3W) System With Non-Linear Loading 358
13.7.1.2 For a PV-Grid System (Constant Irradiance Condition) 360
13.7.1.3 For a PV-SOFC Integrated System 364
13.7.2 Series Active Power Filter 366
13.7.2.1 SAF for a 3-φ 3-Wire (3P3W) System With Non-Linear Load Condition 366
13.7.2.2 For a PV-Grid System (Constant Irradiance Condition) 368
13.7.2.3 For a PV-SOFC Integrated System 370
13.8 Conclusion 373
References 373
14 Application of Fuzzy Logic in Power Quality Assessment of Modern Power Systems 377
V. Vignesh Kumar and C.K. Babulal
14.1 Introduction 378
14.2 Power Quality Indices 379
14.2.1 Total Harmonic Distortion 379
14.2.2 Total Demand Distortion 380
14.2.3 Power and Power Factor Indices 380
14.2.4 Transmission Efficiency Power Factor (TEPF) 381
14.2.5 Oscillation Power Factor (OSCPF) 382
14.2.6 Displacement Power Factor (DPF) 383
14.3 Fuzzy Logic Systems 383
14.4 Development of Fuzzy Based Power Quality Evaluation Modules 384
14.4.1 Stage I: Fuzzy Logic Based Total Demand Distortion 385
14.4.1.1 Performance of FTDDF Under Sinusoidal Situations 388
14.4.1.2 Performance of FTDDF Under Nonsinusoidal Situations 389
14.4.2 Stage II - Fuzzy Representative Quality Power Factor (FRQPF) 390
14.4.2.1 Performance of FRQPF Under Sinusoidal and Nonsinusoidal Situations 393
14.4.3 Stage III - Fuzzy Power Quality Index (FPQI) Module 395
14.4.3.1 Performance of FPQI Under Sinusoidal and Nonsinusoidal Situations 397
14.5 Conclusion 401
References 401
15 Applications of Internet of Things for Microgrid 405
Vikram Kulkarni, Sarat Kumar Sahoo and Rejo Mathew
15.1 Introduction 405
15.2 Internet of Things 408
15.2.1 Architecture and Design 409
15.2.2 Analysis of Data Science 410
15.3 Smart Micro Grid: An IoT Perspective 410
15.4 Literature Survey on the IoT for SMG 411
15.4.1 Advanced Metering Infrastructure Based on IoT for SMG 414
15.4.2 Sub-Systems of AMI 414
15.4.3 Every Smart Meter Based on IoT has to Provide the Following Functionalities 416
15.4.4 Communication 417
15.4.5 Cloud Computing Applications for SMG 418
15.5 Cyber Security Challenges for SMG 419
15.6 Conclusion 421
References 423
16 Application of Artificial Intelligent Techniques in Microgrid 429
S. Anbarasi, S. Ramesh, S. Sivakumar and S. Manimaran
16.1 Introduction 430
16.2 Main Problems Faced in Microgrid 431
16.3 Application of AI Techniques in Microgrid 431
16.3.1 Power Quality Issues and Control 432
16.3.1.1 Preamble of Power Quality Problem 432
16.3.1.2 Issues with Control and Operation of MicroGrid Systems 433
16.3.1.3 AI Techniques for Improving Power Quality Issues 434
16.3.2 Energy Storage System With Economic Power Dispatch 438
16.3.2.1 Energy Storage System in Microgrid 438
16.3.2.2 Need for Intelligent Approaches in Energy Storage System 440
16.3.2.3 Intelligent Methodologies for ESS Integrated in Microgrid 441
16.3.3 Energy Management System 444
16.3.3.1 Description of Energy Management System 444
16.3.3.2 EMS and Distributed Energy Resources 445
16.3.3.3 Intelligent Energy Management for a Microgrid 446
16.4 Conclusion 448
References 449
17 Mathematical Modeling for Green Energy Smart Meter for Microgrids 451
Moloko Joseph Sebake and Meera K. Joseph
17.1 Introduction 451
17.1.1 Smart Meter 452
17.1.2 Green Energy 453
17.1.3 Microgrid 453
17.1.4 MPPT Solar Charge Controller 454
17.2 Related Work 454
17.3 Proposed Technical Architecture 456
17.3.1 Green Energy Smart Meter Architecture 456
17.3.2 Solar Panel 456
17.3.3 MPPT Controller 456
17.3.4 Battery 457
17.3.5 Solid-State Switch 457
17.3.6 Electrical Load 457
17.3.7 Solar Voltage Sensor 457
17.3.8 Batter Voltage Sensor 458
17.3.9 Current Sensor 458
17.3.10 Microcontroller 458
17.3.11 Wi-Fi Module 458
17.3.12 GSM/3G/LTE Module 459
17.3.13 LCD Display 459
17.4 Proposed Mathematical Model 459
17.5 Results 462
Conclusion 468
References 469
18 Microgrid Communication 471
R. Sandhya and Sharmeela Chenniappan
18.1 Introduction 471
18.2 Reasons for Microgrids 473
18.3 Microgrid Control 474
18.4 Control Including Communication 474
18.5 Control with No Communication 475
18.6 Requirements 478
18.7 Reliability 478
18.8 Microgrid Communication 479
18.9 Microgrid Communication Networks 481
18.9.1 Wi-Fi 481
18.9.2 WiMAX-Based Network 482
18.9.3 Wired and Wireless-Based Integrated Network 482
18.9.4 Smart Grids 482
18.10 Key Aspects of Communication Networks in Smart Grids 483
18.11 Customer Premises Network (CPN) 483
18.12 Architectures and Technologies Utilized in Communication Networks Within the Transmission Grid 485
References 487
19 Placement of Energy Exchange Centers and Bidding Strategies for Smartgrid Environment 491
Balaji, S. and Ayush, T.
19.1 Introduction 491
19.1.1 Overview 491
19.1.2 Energy Exchange Centers 492
19.1.3 Energy Markets 493
19.2 Local Energy Centers and Optimal Placement 495
19.2.1 Problem Formulation (Clustering of Local Energy Market) 496
19.2.2 Clustering Algorithm 496
19.2.3 Test Cases 497
19.2.4 Results and Discussions 498
19.2.5 Conclusions for Simulations Based on Modified K Means Clustering for Optimal Location of EEC 501
19.3 Local Energy Markets and Bidding Strategies 503
19.3.1 Prosumer Centric Retail Electricity Market 504
19.3.2 System Modeling 505
19.3.2.1 Prosumer Centric Framework 505
19.3.2.2 Electricity Prosumers 505
19.3.2.3 Modeling of Utility Companies 507
19.3.2.4 Modeling of Distribution System Operator (DSO) 507
19.3.2.5 Supply Function Equilibrium 507
19.3.2.6 Constraints 508
19.3.3 Solution Methodology 509
19.3.3.1 Game Theory Approach 509
19.3.3.2 Relaxation Algorithm 511
19.3.3.3 Bi-Level Algorithm 511
19.3.3.4 Simulation Results 512
19.3.3.5 Nikaido-Isoda Formulation 513
19.3.4 Case Study 513
19.3.4.1 Plots 514
19.3.4.2 Anti-Dumping 514
19.3.4.3 Macro-Control 514
19.3.4.4 Sensitivity Analysis 514
Conclusion 517
References 518
Index 521
