The risk of explosion is inseparable from industrial activity, as we are often reminded by the news. In order to avoid an explosion, it is necessary to understand the phenomena surrounding it, and take the necessary preventive measures to protect society if it comes to the worst-case scenario. This book will detail these phenomena.
The Mechanisms of Explosions presents theoretical aspects from a physicochemical point of view and proposes various methods adapted to each type of explosion, including ATEX explosions. The author shares his knowledge of the mechanisms of explosions, acquired during numerous investigations.
These 27 case studies - detailing circumstances, mechanisms and the nature and intensity of explosive effects - were selected to cover all of the possible physical or chemical phenomena, substances and mechanisms, without limiting themselves to the most common situations.
This book, packed full of information, is designed to benefit those who analyze and investigate explosions, particularly insurance and judicial experts, prevention engineers, security managers and trainers.
Table of Contents
Foreword xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Introduction xvii
Part 1 General Information and Approach 1
Chapter 1 The Explosion Phenomenon 3
1.1 Explosion of an ATEX 4
1.1.1 Definition of an ATEX 4
1.1.2 Case of an ATEX consisting of a combustible dust dispersed in air 23
1.1.3 Case of a hybrid ATEX 25
1.1.4 Evaluation of the released energy Elib 25
1.2 Chemical systems other than ATEX 39
1.2.1 Definition elements 39
1.2.2 Evaluation of E lib 40
1.2.3 Flame propagation regimes in explosive system 1 or 2 40
1.3 Hollow body rupture (or bursting) 44
1.3.1 Definition elements 44
1.3.2 Evaluation of Elib 45
1.4 Superheated liquid vaporization 46
1.4.1 Definition elements 46
1.4.2 Evaluation of Elib 46
1.5 Comparison of Elib with the energy E eff required to produce the explosion effects 47
Chapter 2 Method of Investigating an Explosion 49
2.1 Introduction 49
2.2 Establishment of the explosion mechanism 49
2.3 Search for answers to the questions of HOW MUCH and WHAT 50
2.4 Identification of the different types of damage produced by an explosion 51
2.4.1 Effects on structures 52
2.4.2 Effects on the human body 54
2.5 Estimation of the energy required to produce the mechanical effects 55
2.5.1 E eff estimation tools 56
2.5.2 Comparison between Eeff and Elib 64
2.5.3 Order of magnitude of the yield ρ for each type of explosive system 65
2.6 Hypothesis on the type of explosion involved 66
2.7 Estimation of the quantity of the explosive system involved 66
2.7.1 General case 66
2.7.2 Specific case of an ATEX explosion occurring in a confined environment 67
2.8 Evaluation of the hypothesis on the type of explosion involved 67
2.8.1 Compatibility of the hypothesis with the circumstances of the explosion 67
2.8.2 Cases of explosions which may a priori involve different systems 68
2.9 Search for answers to the question of HOW? 71
2.10 Representation of the mechanism of explosion by tree of events 71
Part 2 27 Case Studies of Domestic or Industrial Explosions 73
Introduction to Part 2 75
P2.1 Domestic explosions 78
P2.1.1 Determination of ATEX location and volume 79
P2.1.2 Thermal effects of an explosion on buildings and the human body 82
P2.1.3 Mechanical effects of an explosion in a housing 83
Case 1 Discrimination Between NG and Butane 87
C1.1 Different arguments tentatively used for discrimination 87
C1.2 Thermal effects of the flame 87
C1.3 Mechanical effects of the explosion 88
C1.4 Relevant arguments used for the elimination of a butane leak 88
C1.5 Identified mechanism 89
Case 2 Determination of the Mechanism of an Accident Involving a Fire and an Explosion 91
C2.1 Circumstances and effects of the explosion 91
C2.2 Occurrence of a fire prior to the explosion 91
Case 3 Determination of the Mechanism of an Accident Involving a Fire and Two Explosions 93
C3.1 Nature of the flammable gases or liquids involved in the first explosion 93
C3.2 Determination of the explosion mechanism 94
Case 4 Determination of the Mechanism of an Explosion from the Leak Flow Rate of NG 97
Case 5 Determination of the Mechanism of a Propane Explosion from the Leak Flow Rate 101
Case 6 Determination of the Explosion Mechanism, Based on the Location of the Ignition Source of ATEX 103
C6.1 Circumstances of the explosion 103
C6.2 Discrimination between the boiler leak and the cooker oven leak 104
Lessons learned from the investigation of domestic explosions 106
Case 7 Explosion of a Hydrogenated ATEX in a Pulp Paper Tank 109
C7.1 Description of facilities, circumstances and effects of the explosion 109
C7.2 Objectives of the investigation 110
C7.3 Determination of the composition of the ATEX 110
C7.3.1 Experimental determination of the ATEX components 110
C7.3.2 Determination of the ATEX conditions, formation and ignition 112
C7.3.3 Consistency between the explosion effects and the estimated ATEX volume 112
C7.4 Conclusion 113
Lessons learned from the investigation of the explosion of a hydrogenated Atex 113
Case 8 Explosion of a Hydrogenated ATEX in an Electrolyzer Cell 115
C8.1 Description of facilities and explosion circumstances 115
C8.2 Effects of the explosion 115
C8.3 Investigation objectives 115
C8.3.1 Formation and location of an ATEX in the electrolyzer 116
C8.3.2 Results of experimental study 116
C8.3.3 Consistency between the mechanical effects and the overpressure 116
Lessons learned from Cases 7 and 8 117
Case 9 Explosion of an Air-Propane ATEX 119
C9.1 Case presentation 119
C9.1.1 Description of the facilities 119
C9.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 120
C9.1.3 Explosion damage 120
C9.1.4 Establishment of the explosion mechanism 121
Lessons learned from the investigation 125
Case 10 Explosion in a Refinery 127
C10.1 Case presentation 127
C10.1.1 Description of facilities and circumstances of explosion 127
C10.1.2 Flame propagation regime 128
C10.1.3 Effects of explosion 128
Lessons from the investigation 130
Case 11 Explosions in Recovery Facilities for Cupola Gases 131
C11.1 Case presentation 131
C11.1.1 Description of the facilities 131
C11.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 132
C11.1.3 Explosion damage 132
C11.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 133
C11.1.5 Flammability of the CGs involved in the explosion 133
Lessons learned from investigation of explosion in cupola facilities 145
Case 12 Explosion of Acetone Vapor 147
C12.1 Case presentation 147
C12.1.1 Description of the facilities 147
C12.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 148
C12.1.3 Description of explosion damage 148
C12.1.4 Mechanism of the explosion 149
Lessons from investigation of an explosion of acetone vapor 154
Case 13 Explosion of Vapor of Toluene 155
C13.1 Case presentation 155
C13.1.1. Description of the facility and of the circumstances of the explosion 155
C13.1.2 Effects of the explosion 155
C13.1.3 Determination of the mechanism of the explosion 156
Lessons learned from the investigation of an explosion of toluene vapor 158
Case 14 Explosion of Vapor of Kerosene 159
C14.1 Case presentation 159
C14.1.1 Description of the facility 159
C14.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 159
C14.1.3 Description of explosion damage 160
C14.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 160
Lessons from the investigation of an explosion of kerosene vapor in contact with a hot surface 166
Case 15 Explosion of Volatile Hydrocarbons 167
C15.1 Case presentation 167
C15.1.1 Description of the facility and the circumstances of the explosion 167
C15.1.2 Description of explosion damage 167
C15.1.3 Mechanism of explosion 168
C15.1.4 Estimation of energy released by explosion 173
Lessons to be learned from the investigation of explosion of volatile hydrocarbons 175
Case 16 Explosion in a Spray Dryer of Powdered Milk 177
C16.1 Case presentation 177
C16.1.1 Description of the facility 177
C16.1.2 Circumstances and effects of the explosion 178
C16.1.3 Flammability and explosion characteristics of milk powder 179
C16.1.4 Mechanism of explosion 181
Lessons learned from the expertise of an explosion in a dryer 182
Case 17 Explosion in a Wood Waste Grinding Facility 185
C17.1 Case presentation 185
C17.1.1 Description of the facility 186
C17.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 187
C17.1.3 Effects of the explosion 187
C17.1.4 Flammability characteristics of the wood dust 188
C17.1.5 Determination of the mechanism of explosion 189
Lessons learned from the investigation 191
Case 18 Explosion of a Chloroduct 193
C18.1 Case presentation 193
C18.2 Circumstances of the explosion 193
C18.3 Effects of explosion 193
C18.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 195
C18.4.1 Explosive system identification 195
C18.4.2 Estimation of the rupture pressure Pr of the chloroduct 198
C18.4.3 Different arguments for a detonation of the hydrogen-chlorine mixture 198
Lessons learned from investigation of the explosion of a chloroduct 200
Case 19 Combustion of Steel in Oxygen 201
C19.1 Case presentation 201
C19.1.1 Description of the facility 201
C19.1.2 Circumstances of the accident 203
C19.1.3 Effects 203
C19.1.4 Mechanism of the accident 204
Lessons learned from investigation of combustion in oxygen 206
Case 20 Explosion in an Aluminum Foundry 207
C20.1 Case presentation 207
C20.1.1 Description of the facility 207
C20.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 208
C20.1.3 Explosion effects 208
C20.1.4 Determination of the mechanism of explosion 211
Lessons from investigation of an explosion in an aluminum foundry 215
Case 21 Explosion in a Laboratory Nitration Test 217
C21.1 Case presentation 217
C21.1.1 Nature of the explosive system 217
C21.1.2 Experimental validation of the conditions of the runaway reaction 218
C21.1.3 Results 218
C21.1.4 Conclusion of the tests 221
Lessons learned from investigation of a burst vessel 221
Case 22 Explosion in a Chemical Reactor 223
C22.1 Case presentation 223
C22.1.1 Description of the chemical synthesis process 223
C22.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 224
C22.1.3 Effects of the explosion 224
C22.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 225
C22.1.5 Description of the explosion process 227
Lessons learned from the investigation 228
Case 23 Explosion and Fire Resulting from an Oxidation by KMnO 4 229
C23.1 Case presentation 229
C23.1.1 Circumstances of the explosion 229
C23.1.2 Effects of the explosion 230
C23.1.3 Fire resulting from an ignition of formaldehyde by KMnO 4 233
Lessons learned from the investigation 233
Case 24 Explosion Involving Hydrazine 235
C24.1 Case presentation 235
C24.1.1 Description of the experimental conditions 236
C24.1.2 Results 237
C24.1.3 Origin of an overpressure in a UHH tank 241
Lessons learned from the investigation 241
Case 25 Burst of a Steel Gas Cylinder 243
C25.1 Case presentation 243
C25.1.1 Circumstances of the burst 243
C25.1.2 Effects of the burst 243
C25.1.3 Determination of the mechanism of the burst 247
C25.1.4 Conclusions of the investigation 259
Lessons learned from the investigation 260
Case 26 Explosion in a Foundry of Steel Waste 263
C26.1 Case presentation 263
C26.1.1 Description of the facility 263
C26.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 263
C26.1.3 Effects of explosion 263
C26.1.4 Estimation of E eff based on damage analysis 264
C26.1.5 Determination of the explosion mechanism 265
C26.1.6 Yield of the explosion 265
Lessons learned from the investigation 266
Case 27 Explosion in the Boiler of a Household Waste Incinerator 267
C27.1 Case presentation 267
C27.1.1 Facility description 267
C27.1.2 Circumstances of the explosion 268
C27.1.3 Description of damage 268
C27.1.4 Determination of the explosion mechanism 269
C27.1.5 Protection of the boiler against the effects of an explosion 273
Lessons learned from investigation 275
Conclusion 277
References 281
Index 283
