The impact of 50 years of unbridled plastics production, use, and disposal is now becoming well known and documented. Plastics made from non-renewable petroleum and natural gas resources threaten the environment, human health, species maintenance, and the very life of the ocean. This book helps readers understand the ability of plastics to be sustainable and goes over the plastic products which have a lower carbon footprint, lower waste, and lower pollution.
The well-qualified author’s unique perspective puts a special focus on comprehensive coverage of environmental impacts of plastics including Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) and sustainability strategies related to biobased plastics (e.g., corn), recycled plastics, and petroleum-based plastics. Other samples topics covered in the book include: - End-of-life options for petroleum and biobased plastics including mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, and composting - ASTM biodegradation standards for compost, marine, anaerobic digestion, and landfill environments - Polymer processing, including injection molding, blow molding, extrusion, and compression molding - Environmental data and coverage of petroleum plastics, sustainable composites, and new information on bio-based plastics
The book serves as an invaluable resource for plastics engineers, materials engineers, and all professionals in related disciplines looking to understand and apply the usage of sustainable plastics in many different types of manufacturing operations.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements xv
1 Introduction to Sustainability 1
1.1 Sustainability Definition 1
1.1.1 Societal Impacts of Sustainability 3
1.1.2 Economic Impacts of Sustainability 4
1.1.3 Environmental Impacts of Sustainability 5
1.2 Green Chemistry Definitions 6
1.3 Green Engineering Definitions 8
1.4 Sustainability Definitions for Manufacturing 9
1.5 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 11
1.6 Lean and Green Manufacturing 11
1.7 Summary 11
References 12
2 Environmental Issues 15
2.1 The Planet Is Warming 15
2.2 Melting of Glaciers 19
2.3 Rising Seas 21
2.4 Causes of Global Warming 23
2.4.1 Increased Greenhouse Gases 23
2.4.2 Sources of CO2eq Emissions 23
2.4.3 Anti-Warming Theory 28
2.5 Ocean Pollution and Marine Debris 28
2.5.1 Plastic Marine Debris 30
2.5.1.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants 33
2.5.2 Worldwide Coastal Cleanup 34
2.5.3 US Coastal Cleanup 41
2.6 Chemical Pollution from Plastics 42
2.7 Landfill Trash 43
2.8 Summary 49
References 50
3 Life Cycle Information 57
3.1 Life Cycle Assessment for Environmental Hazards 57
3.2 Life Cycle Assessment Definitions 58
3.2.1 LCA Step 1: Goal and Scope Development 58
3.2.2 LCA Step 2: LCI Development 59
3.2.3 LCA Step 3: LCA Development 60
3.2.4 LCA Step 4: Interpretation of Results 60
3.3 ISO 14040/14044 Life Cycle Assessment Standards 61
3.4 Sensitivity Analysis 62
3.5 Minimal Acceptable Framework for Life Cycle Assessments 64
3.6 Life Cycle Inventory for Petroleum-Based Plastics 65
3.6.1 LCI for PET Pellets 65
3.6.2 LCA Sensitivity Analysis 67
3.6.3 LCA for PET, GPPS, HDPE, and PP Pellets 67
3.7 Life Cycle Assessment for Biobased Poly Lactic Acid 67
3.7.1 LCA Sensitivity Analysis 69
3.8 Summary 70
Chapter 3 70
LCI for PLA 70
LCI for PLA 71
LCI for PLA 71
References 72
4 Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics 75
4.1 Bio-Based Plastics Definition 75
4.2 Bagasse 76
4.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 77
4.4 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 82
4.5 Thermoplastic Starch (TPS) 85
4.6 Petroleum-Based Compostable Polymers 88
4.6.1 Ecoflex 88
4.6.2 Poly-ϵ-Caprolactone, (PCL) 89
4.6.3 Poly(Butylene Succinate) (PBS) 90
References 91
Websites 92
5 Bio-Based and Recycled Petroleum-Based Plastics 95
5.1 Bio-Based Conventional Plastics 95
5.1.1 Bio-Based Polyethylene 98
5.1.1.1 Composition 98
5.1.1.2 Chemistry 98
5.1.1.3 Mechanical Properties 99
5.1.1.4 Life Cycle Assessment for Bio-Based Polyethylene 100
5.1.2 Bio-Based Polypropylene 101
5.1.2.1 Composition 101
5.1.2.2 Chemistry 101
5.1.2.3 Mechanical Properties 102
5.1.3 Bio-Based Ethylene Vinyl Acetate 103
5.1.4 Bio-Based Polyethylene Terephthalate 103
5.1.4.1 Composition 103
5.1.4.2 Chemistry 104
5.1.4.3 Mechanical Properties 104
5.1.4.4 LCA of Bio-Based PET 106
5.2 Recycled Petroleum-Based Plastics 106
5.2.1 Mechanical Recycling 108
5.2.1.1 Plastics Mechanical Recycling Process 109
5.2.2 California Plastics Recycling 111
5.2.3 Society of Plastics Industry Recycling Codes 112
5.2.4 LCAs of Recycled Plastics 112
5.2.4.1 Life Cycle Inventory 113
5.2.4.2 Sustainable Recycled Plastic Products 114
5.3 Oxodegradable Additives for Plastics 114
5.4 Summary 115
References 115
6 End-of-Life Options for Plastics 119
6.1 US EPA WARM Program 119
6.2 Mechanical Recycling of Plastics 119
6.2.1 US Plastics Recycling 120
6.2.2 Plastics Recycling Process 120
6.3 Chemical Recycling 126
6.4 Composting 128
6.4.1 LCA of Composting Process 129
6.5 Waster to Energy 129
6.5.1 Municipal Solid Waste Combustion 130
6.5.2 Blast Furnace 132
6.5.3 Cement Kiln 133
6.5.4 Pollution Issues with Waste-to-Energy Process of Plastics 134
6.6 Landfill Operations 135
6.7 Life Cycle Assessment of End-of-Life Options 136
6.8 Summary 138
References 138
7 Sustainable Plastic Products 143
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Sustainable Plastic Packaging 144
7.2.1 LCAs of Sustainable Plastic Packaging 144
7.2.1.1 LCA Step 1. Creation of the LCA Goal for Plastic Packaging 144
7.2.1.2 LCA Step 2. Creation of the Life Cycle Inventories for Plastic Packaging 144
7.2.1.3 LCA Step 3. Creation of the LCAs for Plastic Packaging 145
7.2.1.4 LCA Step 4. Interpretation of the Three Previous Steps for Plastic Packaging 145
7.2.2 Literature Review of LCAs for Plastic Packaging 146
7.2.2.1 Case 1: LCA of Plastic Food Service Products 146
7.2.2.2 Case 2: LCA of Plastic Packaging Products 148
7.2.2.3 Case 3: LCA of Plastic Clamshell Products 149
7.2.3 LCA of Sustainable Plastic Containers Made from Bio-Based and Petroleum-Based Plastics 152
7.2.4 Greene Sustainability Index (GSI) of Sustainable Plastic Containers 153
7.3 Sustainable Plastic Grocery Bags 155
7.3.1 Literature Review of LCA of Plastic Bags 155
7.3.1.1 LCA of Plastic Bags from Boustead Consulting 156
7.3.1.2 Sensitivity Analysis 156
7.3.2 LCA of Plastic Bags from the Paper Industry in Hong Kong 157
7.3.2.1 Greene Sustainability Index of Plastic Bags 158
7.3.3 Reusable Plastic Bags 158
7.3.3.1 Australian LCA of Reusable rPET Bags 158
7.3.3.2 Scottish LCA of Reusable rPET Bags 160
7.3.3.3 New LCA Development for Reusable Plastic Bags: Step 1 - Development of the Goal 162
7.3.3.4 New LCA Development for Reusable Plastic Bags: Step 2 - LCI Development 163
7.3.3.5 Bags Step 3: Life Cycle Assessment 167
7.3.3.6 Greene Sustainability Index (GSI) of Reusable Plastic Bags 168
7.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Sustainable Plastic Bottles 169
7.4.1 LCAs Literature Review of Plastic Bottles 170
7.4.2 Greene Sustainability Index of Sustainable Plastic Bottles 171
7.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis 172
7.5 Summary 172
References 173
8 Biobased and Biodegradation Standards for Polymeric Materials 177
8.1 Introduction 177
8.1.1 Biodegradation Standards 178
8.1.2 Worldwide Biodegradation 178
8.1.2.1 Standards Agencies 178
8.1.3 Certification 179
8.2 Biobased Standard Test Method 180
8.2.1 US Biobased Standard 180
8.2.1.1 ASTM D6866-10 Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis 180
8.2.2 International Biobased Standards 181
8.3 Industrial Compost Environment 181
8.3.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost Environment 181
8.3.1.1 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ASTM D6400-04. Standard Specification for Compostable Plastics 181
8.3.1.2 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ASTM D6868-03. Standard Specification for Biodegradable Plastics Used as Coatings on Paper and Other Compostable Substrates 183
8.3.1.3 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D5338-11. Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Controlled Composting Conditions 185
8.3.2 International Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost Environment 186
8.3.2.1 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: EN 13432-2000. Packaging Requirements for Packaging Recoverable through Composting and Biodegradation Test Scheme and Evaluation Criteria for the Final Acceptance of Packaging 188
8.3.2.2 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ISO 17088 (EN 13432). Plastics - Evaluation of compostability - Test Scheme and Specification 190
8.3.2.3 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14855-2 (EN 14046) Packaging. Evaluation of the Ultimate Aerobic Biodegradability and Disintegration of Packaging Materials under Controlled Composting Conditions. Method by Analysis of Released Carbon Dioxide 192
8.3.2.4 ISO 16929 (EN14045:2003) Plastics - Determination of the Degree of Disintegration of Plastic Materials under Simulated Composting Conditions in a Pilot-Scale Test 193
8.3.2.5 ISO 20200 (EN14806:2005) Plastics - Determination of the Degree of Disintegration of Plastic Materials under Simulated Composting Conditions in a Laboratory-Scale Test 194
8.3.2.6 Australian Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost 195
8.3.2.7 Japanese Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost 196
8.4 Marine Environment 196
8.4.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Marine Environment 197
8.4.1.1 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ASTM D-7081- 05. Nonfloating Biodegradable Plastic in the Marine Environment 197
8.4.1.2 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D6691-09. Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials in the Marine Environment by a Defined Microbial Consortium or Natural Seawater Inoculum 198
8.4.2 International Aqueous Biodegradation Standards 200
8.4.2.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14852-1999 (EN14047). Determination of Ultimate Aerobic Biodegradability of Plastic Materials in an Aqueous Medium - Method by Analysis of Evolved Carbon 200
8.4.2.2 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14851 (EN14048). Determination of Ultimate Aerobic Biodegradability of Plastic Materials in an Aqueous Medium - Method by Measuring the Oxygen Demand in a Closed Respirometer 201
8.5 Anaerobic Digestion 202
8.5.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Anaerobic Digestion 203
8.5.1.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D5511-02. Standard Test Method for Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under High Solids Anaerobic-Digestion Conditions 203
8.5.2 International Biodegradation Standards for Anaerobic Digestion 205
8.5.2.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14853:2005 Plastics. Determination of Ultimate Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials in an Aqueous System. Method of Biogas Production 205
8.6 Active Landfill 207
8.6.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Active Landfill 207
8.6.1.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D5526-11. Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Accelerated Landfill Conditions 207
8.6.1.2 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D7475-11.
Determining Aerobic Degradation and Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Accelerated Landfill Conditions 209
8.6.2 International Biodegradation Standards for Active Landfill 211
8.7 Home Compost 211
8.7.1 European Home Compost Certification 211
8.7.1.1 Summary 212
8.7.1.2 Procedures 212
8.7.1.3 Specifications 213
8.7.2 US Home Composting Standards 213
8.8 Soil Biodegradation 213
8.8.1 European Soil Biodegradation Certification 213
8.8.1.1 Summary 213
8.8.1.2 Procedures 214
8.8.1.3 Specifications 214
8.8.2 US Soil Biodegradation Standards 215
8.9 Summary 215
References 216
9 Commodity Plastics 217
9.1 Definition of Commodity Plastics 217
9.2 Commodity Plastics 218
9.2.1 Low-Density Poly(ethylene) (LDPE) 222
9.2.1.1 High-Density Poly(ethene) (HDPE) 223
9.2.2 Linear Low-Density Poly(ethene) (LLDPE) 226
9.2.3 Metallocene Linear Low-Densi t Poly(ethene) (mLLDPE) 228
9.2.3.1 Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) 228
9.2.3.2 Cross-Linkable Polyethylene (XLPE) 229
9.2.3.3 Copolymers of Polyethylene 229
9.2.4 Polypropylene (PP) 230
9.2.4.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 232
9.2.4.2 PVC Plasticizers 233
9.2.4.3 Polystyrene (PS) 235
9.2.4.4 Blends and Alloys 239
9.2.4.5 Copolymers 239
9.2.4.6 Acrylics 241
9.2.4.7 Additives for Plastics 244
References 247
Websites 248
10 Engineering Plastics 251
10.1 Engineering Plastics Definition 251
10.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 252
10.3 Acetal (Polyoxymethylene) 255
10.4 Liquid Crystal Polymer 257
10.5 PBT (Polybutylene Terephthalate) 260
10.6 PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) 262
10.7 Nylon (Polyamide) 263
10.8 Polyimide 266
10.9 Polyarylate 268
10.10 Polycarbonate 268
10.11 Thermoplastic Polyurethane 270
10.12 Polyether-Ether-Ketone 271
10.13 PPO, PPS and PPE 273
10.14 Polytetrafluoroethylene 275
References 277
11 Thermoset Polymers 279
11.1 Automotive Thermoset Polymers 279
11.1.1 Polyester Resin 280
11.1.1.1 Mechanical Properties 284
11.1.1.2 Processing of Polyesters 284
11.1.1.3 Mechanical Properties 285
11.1.2 Epoxy 285
11.1.2.1 Epoxy Applications 286
11.1.2.2 Processing of Epoxies 287
11.1.3 Polyurethane 287
11.1.3.1 Processing of Polyurethane 287
11.1.3.2 Polyurethane Automotive Applications 289
11.1.4 Phenolics 290
11.1.4.1 Applications for Phenolics 293
11.1.4.2 Processing of Phenolics 293
11.1.4.3 Properties of Phenolics 293
11.1.5 Silicones 295
11.1.5.1 Silicone Rubber 297
11.1.5.2 Silicone Resin 297
11.1.5.3 Chemistry 298
11.1.6 Dicyclopentadiene 298
11.2 Aerospace Thermosets 299
11.2.1 Polyimides 300
11.2.2 Amino Plastics 302
11.3 Bio-Based Thermoset Polymers 305
11.3.1 Bio-Based Polyesters 305
11.3.2 Bio-Based Epoxies 306
11.3.3 Bio-Based Polyurethanes 308
11.3.4 Bio-Based Nylon-6 310
11.4 Conclusions 311
References 313
Websites 315
12 Polymer Composites 317
12.1 Automotive Polymer Composites 317
12.2 Thermoset Polymer Composites 318
12.2.1 Thermoplastic Polymer Composites 320
12.2.2 Kevlar Composites 323
12.3 Nanocomposite 324
12.4 Fiber Materials for Composites 324
12.5 Carbon Fiber Manufacturing 328
12.6 Properties of Fibers 331
12.7 Rule of Mixtures 336
12.8 Sandwich and Cored Polymer Composite Structures 340
12.9 Polymer Pre-Preg Composites 346
12.10 Processing of Polymer Composites for Automotive Parts 346
12.11 Aerospace Polymer Composites 351
12.12 Processing of Polymer Composites for Aerospace Parts 351
References 354
Websites 355
13 Natural Fiber Polymer Composites 357
13.1 Natural Fibers 357
13.2 Raw Material Information 358
13.3 Fiber Properties 360
13.4 Automotive Use of Natural Fibers 361
13.5 Processing of Natural Fibers 362
13.6 Test Results of Natural Fibers 371
References 375
14 Design Aspects in Automotive Plastics 377
14.1 Introduction 377
14.2 Design Process 378
14.3 Manufacturing Checklist for Quality 379
14.4 Plastic Materials for Automotive Use 380
14.5 Plastic Guidelines for Injection Molding 382
14.6 Plastic Prototypes and 3D Printing 385
14.7 SolidWorks Flow Simulation 387
14.8 Design for Manufacturing (DFM) with Plastics 387
14.9 Shrinkage in Plastics 388
14.10 Design Guidelines 388
14.11 Undercuts 402
14.12 Mold Stack Design 403
14.13 Mold Costs 405
References 407
Websites 408
15 Future of Sustainable Plastics 411
15.1 Sustainable Biobased Plastics Made from Renewable Sources 411
15.2 Sustainable Traditional Plastics Made from Renewable Sources 415
15.3 Growth in Biobased Plastics with Development of Durable Goods 416
15.4 Growth in Biobased Plastics for Pharmaceuticals and Medical Applications 417
15.5 Summary 418
References 419
Index 423
