State-of-the-art overview on bioepoxy polymers as well as their blends and composites -- covering all aspects from fundamentals to applications!
Bioepoxy polymers is an emerging area and have attracted more and more attention due to their biodegradability and good thermo-mechanical performance. In recent years, research progress has been made in synthesis, processing, characterization, and applications of bioepoxy blends and composites. Bioepoxy polymers are very promising candidates to replace the traditional thermosetting nonbiodegradable polymers.
Bio-Based Epoxy Polymers, Blends and Composites summaries recent research progress on bioepoxy polymers as well as their blends and composites. It covers aspects from synthesis, processing, various characterization techniques to broad spectrum of applications. It provides a correlation of physical properties with macro, micro and nanostructures of the materials. Moreover, research trends, future directions, and opportunities are also discussed.
- Attracts attention: Bioepoxy polymers are environmentally friendly and considered as a promising candidate to replace the traditional thermosetting nonbiodegradable polymers
- Highly application-oriented: Bioepoxy polymers can be used in a broad range of applications such as polymer foams, construction, aerospace, automobiles, self-healing systems
- One-stop reference: Covers all aspects of bioepoxy polymer, their blends and composites, such as synthesis, properties, processing, characterization and applications
- Broad audience: Attracts attention from both academia and industry
Table of Contents
Preface xiii
About the Authors xv
1 Synthesis of Bio-Based Epoxy Resins 1
Piotr Czub and Anna Sienkiewicz
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Plant Oil Bio-Based Epoxy Resins 2
1.3 Substitutes for Bisphenol A Replacement 13
1.3.1 Lignin-Based Phenols 13
1.3.2 Vanilin 23
1.3.3 Cardanol 36
1.3.4 Isosorbide 46
1.3.5 Terpene Derivatives 51
1.4 Bio-Based Epoxy Curing Agents 56
References 66
2 Natural/Synthetic Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 73
BoWang, Silu Huang, and Libo Yan
2.1 Introduction 73
2.2 Synthetic and Natural Fibers 73
2.2.1 Synthetic Fibers 74
2.2.1.1 Organic Synthetic Fibers 74
2.2.1.2 Inorganic Synthetic Fibers 77
2.2.2 Natural Fibers 82
2.2.2.1 Plant-Based Natural Fibers 82
2.2.2.2 Animal-Based Natural Fibers 86
2.2.2.3 Mineral-Based Natural Fibers 87
2.2.3 Hybrid Fiber Product 88
2.3 Bioepoxy 89
2.3.1 Natural Oil-Based Epoxy 89
2.3.2 Isosorbide-Based Epoxy (IS-EPO) 90
2.3.3 Furan-Based Epoxy 92
2.3.4 Polyphenolic Epoxy (Vegetable Tannins) 94
2.3.5 Epoxidized Natural Rubber (ENR) 94
2.3.6 Lignin-Based Epoxy 96
2.3.7 Rosin-Based Epoxy 97
2.4 Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 98
2.4.1 Synthetic Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 98
2.4.2 Natural Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 101
2.4.3 Natural-Synthetic Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 103
2.5 Future Perspectives 104
2.6 Conclusions 105
Acknowledgments 105
References 106
3 Polymer Blends Based on Bioepoxy Polymers 117
Sudheer Kumar and Sukhila Krishnan
3.1 Introduction 117
3.2 Plant Oils 118
3.2.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of Plant Oils 118
3.2.2 Chemical Modification of Plant Oils 120
3.3 Preparation of Bioepoxy Polymer Blends with Epoxy Resins 121
3.3.1 Castor Oil-Based Bioepoxy Polymer Blend 123
3.3.2 Soybean Oil-Based BioepoxyThermoset Polymer Blend 126
3.3.3 Linseed Oil-Based BioepoxyThermoset Polymer Blend 129
3.3.4 Palm Oil-Based Bioepoxy Thermoset Polymer Blend 131
3.4 Application of Bioepoxy Polymer Blends 133
3.4.1 Paints and Coatings 133
3.4.2 Adhesives 133
3.4.3 Aerospace Industry 134
3.4.4 Electric Industry 134
3.5 Conclusion 134
References 135
4 Cure Kinetics of Bio-epoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 143
P.A. Parvathy, SmithaMohanty, and Sushanta K. Sahoo
4.1 Introduction 143
4.2 Fundamentals of Curing Reaction Kinetics 144
4.2.1 Curing Kinetic Theories: Isothermal and Non-isothermal 144
4.3 Curing of Bio-thermosets 147
4.3.1 Curing Agents and Curing Reactions 147
4.4 Curing Kinetics of Bio-epoxies and Blends 149
4.4.1 Curing Kinetics of Bio-epoxy Composites 155
4.5 Case Study: Non-isothermal Kinetics of Plant Oil-Epoxy-Clay Composite 156
4.6 Conclusion and Future Prospective 161
References 161
5 Rheology of Bioepoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 167
Appukuttan Saritha, Battula D.S. Deeraj, Jitha S. Jayan, and Kuruvilla Joseph
5.1 Introduction 167
5.2 Rheology of Bioepoxy-Based Polymers 168
5.2.1 Natural Oil-Based Epoxies 169
5.2.2 Isosorbide-Based Epoxy Resins 172
5.2.3 Phenolic and Polyphenolic Epoxies 175
5.2.4 Epoxidized Natural Rubber-Based Epoxies 176
5.2.5 Epoxy Lignin Derivatives 178
5.2.6 Rosin-Based Resin 181
5.3 Rheology of Bioepoxy-Based Composites 181
5.4 Rheology of Bioepoxy-Based Blends 187
5.5 Conclusions and Future Scope 190
References 190
6 Dynamical Mechanical Thermal Analysis of Bioepoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 197
Angel Romo-Uribe
6.1 Focus 197
6.2 Bioepoxies and Reinforcers 198
6.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis and Polymer Dynamics 198
6.4 Applications 207
6.5 Conclusion 210
References 211
7 Mechanical Properties of Bioepoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 215
Ahmad Y. Al-Maharma, Yousef Heider, BerndMarkert, and Marcus Stoffel
7.1 Introduction 215
7.2 Mechanical Properties of Bioepoxy Polymers 216
7.2.1 Effect of Modifying Bioepoxy Chemical Structure 218
7.2.2 Effect of Curing Agents 218
7.3 Blends of Bioepoxy Resin 220
7.3.1 Toughening Effect of EVO-Based Resins 220
7.3.2 Effect of Chemical Interaction in Epoxy Blend 223
7.3.3 Increasing Content Effect of EVOs in Bioepoxy Blend 223
7.4 Bioepoxy-Based Composites 226
7.4.1 Undesirable Effect of Moisture Absorption 226
7.4.2 Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composite 227
7.4.2.1 Natural Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 227
7.4.2.2 Synthetic Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 229
7.4.2.3 Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 230
7.4.3 Bioepoxy-Based Nanocomposites 230
7.4.3.1 Nanoclay-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 231
7.4.3.2 Cellulose Nanofiller-Reinforced Bioepoxy Composites 233
7.4.4 Multiscale Bioepoxy Composites 235
7.5 Conclusion 235
7.6 Future Perspectives and Recommendations 237
Acknowledgment 237
References 237
8 Bio-epoxy Polymer, Blends and Composites Derived Utilitarian Electrical, Magnetic and Optical Properties 249
RaviPrakashMagisetty and Naga Srilatha CH
8.1 Introduction 249
8.2 Significance of Bioepoxy-Based Materials 250
8.3 Bioepoxy-Derived Utilitarian Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties 252
8.3.1 Bioepoxy-Based Material: Electrical and Electronic Properties 252
8.3.2 Bioepoxy-Based Material: Magnetic and Optoelectronic Properties 257
8.4 Conclusion 262
References 263
9 Spectroscopy and OtherMiscellaneous Techniques for the Characterization of Bio-epoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 267
Mohammad Khajouei, Peyman Pouresmaeel-Selakjani, and Mohammad Latifi
9.1 Introduction 267
9.2 Various Methods for Epoxy Polymer Characterization 268
9.2.1 FTIR Spectroscopy 268
9.2.1.1 How Phase Separation Process Can Affect the IR Spectrum 270
9.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 270
9.2.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 274
9.2.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 275
9.3 Various Bio-Based Epoxy Polymers,Theirs Uses, and Methods of Characterization in Review 275
9.3.1 Fire-Retardant-Based Epoxy 276
9.3.2 (Lignocellulosic Biomass)-Based Epoxy Polymers 277
9.3.3 Furan-Based Epoxy Resin 278
9.3.4 Rosin Corrosive-Based Epoxy 278
9.3.5 Itaconic Corrosive-Based Epoxy 278
9.3.6 Self-mending Epoxy Resin 279
9.3.7 Other Epoxy Polymers 279
References 280
10 Flame Retardancy of Bioepoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 283
Young-O Kim and Yong Chae Jung
10.1 Introduction 283
10.2 Methods for Analyzing Flame-Retardant Properties 284
10.2.1 LOI (Limiting Oxygen Index) 286
10.2.2 UL-94 287
10.2.2.1 Horizontal Testing (UL-94 HB) 287
10.2.2.2 Vertical Testing (UL-94 V) 288
10.2.3 Cone Calorimeter 288
10.2.3.1 Configuration 288
10.2.3.2 Controlling Factors: Heat Flux,Thickness, and Distance Between Sample Surface and Cone Heater 289
10.2.4 Microscale Combustion Calorimeter 292
10.3 Halogen-Free Flame-RetardantMarket 293
10.4 Bioepoxy Polymers with Flame-Retardant Properties 293
10.4.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass-Derived Epoxy Polymers 294
10.4.1.1 Eugenol 294
10.4.1.2 Vanillin 296
10.4.2 Furan 297
10.4.3 Tannins 298
10.5 Use of Fillers for Improving Flame-Retardant Properties of Bioepoxy Polymers 298
10.6 Conclusion 302
Acknowledgment 303
References 303
11 Water Sorption and Solvent Sorption of Bio-epoxy Polymers, Their Blends, and Composites 309
Amirthalingam V. Kiruthika
11.1 Introduction 309
11.2 Bio-epoxy Resins 310
11.2.1 Soybean Oil (SO)-Based Epoxy Resins 310
11.2.2 Cardanol-Based Epoxy 312
11.2.3 Lignin-Based Epoxy 313
11.2.4 Gallic Acid (C7H6O5)-Based Epoxy 314
11.2.5 Itaconic Acid (C5H6O4)-Based Epoxy 314
11.2.6 Natural Rubber (NR)-Based Epoxy 315
11.2.7 Rosin-Based Epoxy 317
11.2.8 Furan-Based Epoxy 317
11.2.9 Hempseed Oil-Based Epoxy 318
11.2.10 Eugenol (C10H12O2)-Based Epoxy 319
11.3 Conclusion 319
References 320
12 Biobased Epoxy: Applications in Mendable and Reprocessable Thermosets, Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives and Thermosetting Foams 323
Roxana A. Ruseckaite, Pablo M. Stefani, and Facundo I. Altuna
12.1 Introduction 323
12.2 Mendable and Reprocessable Biobased Epoxy Polymers 324
12.2.1 Extrinsic Self-healing Biobased Epoxies 326
12.2.2 Intrinsic Self-healing Biobased Epoxies 328
12.3 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives (PSAs) From Biobased Epoxy Building Blocks 333
12.4 Biobased Epoxy Foams 342
12.4.1 Syntactic Foams from Biobased Epoxy Resins 342
12.4.2 Thermosetting Epoxy Foams 345
References 353
Index 361
