Social Development provides a comprehensive introduction to the multiple factors that shape a child’s behavior, interaction with others, feelings about themselves, and how and why behaviors change over time. Delving into the biological, cognitive, and perceptual aspects of development and their influence on behavior, socialization, and self-image, this text also recognizes the significance of cultural and societal distinctions by emphasizing the value of context and identifying cultural variation’s role in social development.
Special pedagogical features in each chapter enhance the learning experience and promote student understanding: counter-intuitive examples cases challenge reader assumptions, coverage of extreme cases tell the story behind historical advancements, and profiles of current leaders in the field highlight the many paths to a career in social development. With a focus on real-world application, coupled with coverage of cutting-edge methodologies and the latest research findings, this book gives students a strong, highly relevant foundation in core concepts and practices central to the study of social development.
Table of Contents
Preface xix
1 Introduction: Theories of Social Development 1
Bet You Didn’t Know That . . . Newborns Can Recognize Their Mothers by Smell 2
Social Development: A Brief History 2
Critical Questions about Social Development 3
How Do Biological and Environmental Influences Affect Social Development? 3
What Role Do Children Play In Their Own Development? 4
What Is The Appropriate Unit for Studying Social Development? 4
Insights from Extremes: Genie, a “Wild Child” 5
Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? 5
Is Social Behavior the Result of the Situation or the Child? 7
Is Social Development Universal Across Cultures? 7
Cultural Context: Parenting Advice Around the Globe 8
How Does Social Development Vary Across Historical Eras? 9
Is Social Development Related to Other Developmental Domains? 10
How Important Are Mothers for Children’s Social Development? 10
Research Up Close: Children of the Great Depression 11
Is There a Single Pathway of Social Development? 12
What Influences How We Judge Children’s Social Behavior? 13
Do Developmental Psychologists “Own” Social Development? 13
Is Social Development Focused on Only Basic Research or on Applied and Policy Relevant Concerns as Well? 14
Theoretical Perspectives on Social Development 14
Psychodynamic Perspective 15
Into Adulthood: Fatherhood and Generativity 19
Traditional Learning Theory Perspective 20
Cognitive Learning Perspective 21
Information-Processing Perspective 24
Cognitive Developmental Perspective 26
Systems-Theory Perspective 29
Biological Perspective 31
Life Span Perspective 35
A Variety of Theoretical Perspectives 36
Learning from Living Leaders 36
Chapter Summary 38
Key Terms 41
At the Movies 41
2 Research Methods: Tools for Discovery 43
Getting Started: Formulating Hypotheses, Asking Questions 44
Research Methods: Establishing Patterns and Causes 44
The Correlational Method 45
Laboratory Experiments 46
Field Experiments, Interventions, and Natural Experiments 48
Insights from Extremes: Lost and Found Children 49
Combining Different Methods 50
Real-World Application: Treating an Aggressive Child 51
The Case Study Approach 52
Studying Change Over Time 52
Cross-Sectional Design 52
The Longitudinal Design 52
Into Adulthood: Behavior in Childhood Predicts Adult Outcomes 55
The Cross-Sequential Design 55
Selecting a Sample 57
Representativeness of the Sample 57
The National Survey Approach 58
Meta-Analysis: Combining Results Across Studies 59
Studying Development Cross-Culturally 59
Cultural Context: Challenges for Researchers 60
Gathering Data 61
Children’s Self-Reports 61
Research Up Close: The Puppet Interview Method 62
Reports by Family Members, Teachers, and Peers 64
Focus Groups 65
Direct Observation 66
Bet You Thought That . . .: Parents Can Accurately Report Retrospectively About Their Children’s Early Years 67
Ways of Recording and Coding Observations 70
Analyzing Data 74
Ethics of Research with Children 76
Learning from Living Leaders 78
Chapter Summary 81
Key Terms 83
At the Movies 83
3 Biological Foundations: Roots in Neurons and Genes 85
Biological Preparedness for Social Interaction 86
How Are Babies Prepared? 86
Why Are Babies Prepared? 90
The Neurological Basis of Social Development 90
The Brain 91
Brain Growth and Development 91
Hemispheric Specialization 93
Neurons and Synapses 94
Brain Development and Experience 95
Mirror Neurons and the Social Brain 95
Genetics and Social Development 99
Bet You Thought That . . .: Genes Determine Your Potential 99
Methods of Studying Genetic Contributions to Development 100
Models of Genetic Influence 103
Genetic Anomalies 108
Research Up Close: A Genetic Risk for Drug Use 109
Insights from Extremes: Autism 110
Real-World Application: Genetic Counseling, Genetic Selection 112
Temperament: Causes and Consequences 113
Defining and Measuring Temperament 113
Cultural Context: Are Temperaments the Same Around the World? 115
The Biological Basis of Temperament 115
Early Evidence of Temperament 117
Consequences and Correlates of Temperament 117
Into Adulthood: Shy Children Thirty Years Later 120
Learning from Living Leaders 121
Chapter Summary 123
Key Terms 125
At the Movies 126
4 Attachment: Forming Close Relationships 127
Theories of Attachment 128
Psychoanalytic Theory 128
Learning Theories 129
Cognitive Developmental Theory 129
Ethological Theory 130
Insights from Extremes: Maternal Bonding 131
How Attachment Develops 132
Formation and Early Development of Attachment 133
What It Means to Be Attached 133
Attachment to Whom? 134
The Nature and Quality of Attachment 135
Bet You Thought That . . .: Babies Become Attached to Their Teddy Bears and Blankets 135
Different Types of Attachment Relationships 136
Cultural Context: Assessing Attachment in Different Cultures 140
Parents’ Role in Infants’ Attachment Development 141
Research Up Close: Early Experience, Hormones, and Attachment 145
Real-World Application: Attachment When Mother (or Father) Goes to Prison 149
Effects of Infant Characteristics on Attachment 150
Stability and Consequences of Attachment 151
Stability and Change in Attachment Over Time 151
Attachments in Older Children 153
Consequences of Attachment 153
Into Adulthood: From Early Attachment to Later Romantic Relationships 158
Learning from Living Leaders 159
Chapter Summary 161
Key Terms 163
At the Movies 163
5 Emotions: Thoughts about Feelings 165
What Are Emotions? 166
Why Are Emotions Important? 166
Perspectives on Emotional Development 166
Biological Perspective 167
Learning Perspective 167
Functional Perspective 168
Development of Emotions 168
Primary Emotions 169
Bet You Thought That. . .: A Smile Is a Smile Is a Smile 172
Secondary Emotions 178
Individual Differences in Emotional Expressiveness 181
Development of Emotional Understanding 182
Recognizing Emotions in Others 182
Cultural Context: Expressing and Understanding Emotions in Different Cultures 184
Beyond Recognition: Knowledge of and Understanding About Emotions 185
Emotion Regulation 188
Socialization of Emotion 189
Into Adulthood: Controlling Negative Emotions in Adulthood 190
Socialization by Parents 191
Socialization by Other Children 194
Research Up Close: Emotional Development in a High School Theater Program 194
Socialization by Teachers 195
Real-World Application: Teachers as Promoters of Emotional Competence 196
When Emotional Development Goes Wrong 197
Insights from Extremes: When Children Commit Suicide 199
Causes of Childhood Depression 200
Treating Childhood Depression 201
Learning from Living Leaders 202
Chapter Summary 203
Key Terms 204
At the Movies 204
6 Self and Other: Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You 206
The Sense of Self 207
Developmental Origins of Self-Concept 208
Cultural Context: How Culture Shapes Self-Representations 210
Difficulty Developing a Sense of Self: Autistic Children 211
Self-Perceptions 212
Global Self-Esteem 212
Domain-Specific Perceptions 212
Learning Self-Appraisal 213
Gender Variations in Global Self-Esteem 214
Social Determinants of Self-Esteem 215
Identity Formation 216
Into Adulthood: Identity Formation Continues 219
Ethnic Identity 220
Religious Identity 225
Real-World Application: Sexual Orientation and Identity 226
Development of Knowledge about Others 228
Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms 228
Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind 228
Research Up Close: The Brain Beneath Theory of Mind 229
Bet You Thought That . . .: Babies Are Not Mind Readers 230
Understanding Psychological Trait Labels 231
Perspective Taking 232
Advancing Social Understanding 233
Stereotyping and Prejudice 235
Insights from Extremes: The Most Extreme Prejudice: Genocide 238
Communication Between Me and You: The Role of Language 239
Steps Toward Language Fluency 239
Semantic Development: The Power of Words 241
The Acquisition of Grammar: From Words to Sentences 241
Learning the Social Uses of Language 242
Learning from Living Leaders 244
Chapter Summary 245
Key Terms 247
At the Movies 247
7 Family: Early and Enduring Influences 248
The Family System 249
The Couple System 249
Into Adulthood: Transition to Parenthood 253
The Parent-Child System 254
Research Up Close: Transmission of Hostile Parenting across Generations 259
Bet You Thought That . . .: Parenting Is a Brain Drain, Not a Brain Booster 262
The Coparenting System 264
Insights from Extremes: When Is a Family Too Large? 265
The Sibling System 265
The Family Unit: Stories, Rituals, and Routines 270
Real-World Application: “Let’s Have Dinner” 271
Family Variation: Social Class and Culture 272
Differences in Family Values and Practices Related to Socioeconomic Status 272
Cultural Patterns in Child Rearing 273
Cultural Context: How Effects of Parenting Vary Across Cultures 274
The Changing American Family 276
Parents’ Employment and Child Development 277
Parenting after Thirty 280
New Reproductive Technologies 281
Adoption: Another Route to Parenthood 281
Gay and Lesbian Parents 282
Parenting Alone 283
Divorce and Remarriage 284
Learning from Living Leaders 291
Chapter Summary 293
Key Terms 295
At the Movies 295
8 Peers: A World of Their Own 297
Definitions and Distinctions 298
Developmental Patterns of Peer Interaction 298
First Encounters in Infancy 298
Social Exchanges between Toddlers 300
Peer Play in Early Childhood 301
Peer Society in the School Years 302
Peer Interactions in Adolescence 304
Peers as Socializers 304
Modeling Behavior 305
Reinforcing and Punishing Behavior 305
Contagion 305
Social Comparison 306
Cultural Context: Peer Roles and Relationships in Different Cultures 306
Peer Status 308
Studying Peer Status: Acceptance and Rejection 308
Factors that Affect Peer Acceptance 309
Consequences of Peer Rejection 315
Bet You Thought That . . .: Names Would Never Hurt You 316
Research Up Close: When “Love Thine Enemy” Fails 317
Insights from Extremes: From Rejection to Revenge? 318
Promoters of Peer Acceptance 320
Parents as Promoters of Peer Acceptance 320
Researchers as Promoters of Peer Acceptance 324
Peers Can Help Too 326
When Peers Become Friends 326
Age Changes in Friendship 326
Interactions with Friends 329
Insights from Extremes: When Children Love and Protect Each Other 330
Friendship Patterns 331
The Pros and Cons of Friendship 332
Romantic Relationships 332
Interaction in Groups 334
Dominance Hierarchies 335
Cliques, Crowds, and Gangs 336
Into Adulthood: What Happens When Jocks, Brains, and Princesses Grow Up 337
Real-World Application: Youth Gangs 339
Learning from Living Leaders 339
Chapter Summary 341
Key Terms 343
At the Movies 344
9 Schools, Mentors, and Media: Connections with Society 345
The Role of the School in Social Development 346
Schools as Social Communities 346
School Size and Organization 347
Class Size and Organization 350
Bet You Thought That . . .: Homeschooled Children Were Socially Disadvantaged 352
The Teachers’ Impact 353
School-Family Links 355
Cultural Context: Matching Classroom Organization to Cultural Values and Practices 356
School Integration 359
After-School Programs 360
Mentors Supporting Social Development 361
Natural Mentors 362
Mentor Programs 363
Electronic Media and Children’s Social Lives 364
Screen Media: Television and Digital Media 364
Positive Effects of Screen Media 364
Potential Negative Effects of Screen Media 365
Do Children Understand What They See? 369
Real-World Application: Advertising Influences Children’s
Choices 371
How Can Parents and Siblings Modify TV’s Negative Effects? 372
Into Adulthood: Still Playing Games? 373
Playing Video Games 374
Smartphones and Social Media 375
Potential Positive Effects of Smartphones and Social Media 375
Concerns Regarding Smartphones and Social Media 377
Research Up Close: Role-Playing Games and Social Life 380
Insights from Extremes: The Risks of Sexting 381
Learning from Living Leaders 381
Chapter Summary 384
Key Terms 386
At the Movies 386
10 Sex and Gender: Vive La Différence? 388
Getting Started: Defining Sex and Gender 388
Gender Differences in Growth, Abilities, Activities, and Interests 389
Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood 392
Stability of Gender Typing 393
Into Adulthood: Occupations for Men and Women 393
Sex Differences in Gender Typing 395
Gender Stereotypes 395
Cultural Context: Cultural Differences in Gender Stereotypes 397
Biological Factors in Gender Differences 398
Bet You Thought That . . .: Gender Identity was Determined by Biological Sex 398
Evolutionary Theory and Gender Development 400
Insights from Extremes: The First American Transgendered Person 400
Hormones and Social Behavior 401
Gender and the Brain 402
Genetics of Gender 404
Biology and Cultural Expectations 404
Cognitive Factors in Gender Typing 405
Cognitive Developmental Theory 406
Gender-Schema Theory: An Information-Processing Approach 407
Comparison of Cognitive Developmental and Gender-Schema Theories 408
Social Influences on Gender Typing 408
Theories of Social Influence 408
Parents’ Influence on Children’s Gender-Typed Choices 409
Parents’ Behavior toward Girls and Boys 410
Modeling Parents’ Characteristics 413
When Father Is Absent 413
Research Up Close: Gender Roles in Counterculture Families 414
Siblings as Agents of Gender Socialization 416
Role Models in Books, Games, and Television 417
Peers, Gender Roles, and Gender Segregation 418
Real-World Application: Do Computers Widen the Gender Gap? 419
Schools and Teachers 422
Nature and Nurture 425
Androgyny 425
Learning from Living Leaders 427
Chapter Summary 428
Key Terms 430
At the Movies 431
11 Morality: Knowing Right, Doing Good 432
Moral Judgment 433
Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment 433
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment 435
Insights from Extremes: Moral Heroes 437
Cultural Context: Justice versus Interpersonal Obligations in India and the United States 441
Turiel’s Social Domain Theory 443
How Children Learn the Rules and Distinguish between Social Domains 446
Moral Behavior 449
Bet You Thought That . . .: Moral Judgment Leads to Moral Action 450
Self-Regulation of Behavior 451
Individual Differences in Moral Behavior 451
Consistency of Moral Behavior across Situations and Time 452
Into Adulthood: The Love of Money Is the Root of All Evil 453
Research Up Close: Children Telling Lies 454
Moral Emotions 456
Development of Moral Emotions 456
Do Moral Emotions Affect Moral Behavior? 458
Real-World Application: Adolescents’ Competence to Stand Trial as Adults 459
The Whole Moral Child 460
Prosocial and Altruistic Behavior 461
How Prosocial Behavior and Reasoning Develop 461
Determinants of Prosocial Development 464
Learning from Living Leaders 470
Chapter Summary 473
Key Terms 474
At the Movies 474
12 Aggression: Insult and Injury 476
Types of Aggression 477
Patterns of Aggression 479
Developmental Changes in Aggression 479
Gender Differences in Aggression 481
Stability of Individual Differences in Aggression 483
Into Adulthood: From Childhood Aggression to Road Rage 485
Causes of Aggression 486
Biological Origins of Aggressive Behavior 486
Social Influences on the Development of Aggression 489
Insights from Extremes: Child Soldiers 493
Combined Biological and Social Influences on Aggression 497
Research Up Close: Genes, Environmental Triggers, and Aggressive Behavior 499
Sociocognitive Factors in the Development of Aggression 500
Bullies and Victims 502
Behavior of Bullies and Victims 503
Consequences of Bullying 505
Real-World Application: Cyberfighting and Cyberbullying 505
Conditions Leading to Bullying 507
Control of Aggression 508
Bet You Thought That . . .: You Could Reduce Aggressive Feelings by “Letting off Steam” 508
Cognitive Modification Strategies 509
Parents as Agents for Reducing Aggression 509
Schools as Venues for Intervention 510
Aggression Prevention: A Multipronged Effort 510
Cultural Context: Preventing Youth Violence 513
Learning from Living Leaders 514
Chapter Summary 516
Key Terms 517
At the Movies 518
13 Policy: Improving Children’s Lives 519
What Determines Public Policy for Children? 520
Types of Public Policy 521
Children in Poverty: A Social Policy Challenge 523
Economic Hardship and Social Disadvantage 523
Effects of Poverty on Children 523
Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty 524
Real-World Application: Early Intervention with Children in Poverty 527
Child Care: A Problem Lacking a Unified Policy 528
Choosing Child Care: What’s a Parent to Do? 528
Effects of Child Care on Children 529
How Can Policy Help? 531
Research Up Close: The Florida Child Care Quality Improvement Study 534
Teenage Pregnancy: Children Having Children 534
Factors Leading to Teen Pregnancy 535
Bet You Thought That . . .: More Teens Are Having Sex Than Ever Before 536
Outcomes of Teen Pregnancies 536
Into Adulthood: When Teen Mothers Grow Up 538
Reducing Teen Pregnancy 539
Support for Teenage Mothers 542
Child Abuse within the Family 543
Child Abuse: A Family Affair 543
The Ecology of Child Abuse 545
Consequences of Abuse 546
Policies to Prevent Abuse 547
Cultural Context: Child Abuse and Children’s Rights 547
Insights from Extremes: Suggestive Interrogations and Legal Policy 551
Learning from Living Leaders 553
Chapter Summary 556
Key Terms 558
At the Movies 559
14 Overarching Themes: Integrating Social Development 560
What We Know: Some Take-Home Principles 561
Views of the Social Child 561
Organization and Explanation of Children’s Social Behavior 562
Social Agents and Contexts for Social Development 563
Progress and Pathways of Social Development 564
Glimpsing the Future: Methodological, Theoretical, and Policy Imperatives 566
Methodological Imperatives 566
Theoretical Imperatives 567
Policy Imperatives 568
Emerging Leaders in Social Development 569
At the Wedding 574
Glossary 575
Author Index 587
Subject Index 609
References (Available from your Instructor)
