A compilation of all relevant information for the production and use of waxes in technical applications
Waxes are among the oldest organic substances used by mankind. Before all others, beeswax is known to have played a role in human history for thousands of years. But over time, many other wax species have been detected and exploited, and prepared for different utilizations. Today, we possess knowledge of a great variety of different types of waxes. Unfortunately, there still is no broadly accepted definition of a wax: for the relatively few wax chemists, waxes are usually defined by their physico-chemical properties more than by their chemical constitution. Waxes are not uniform but oligomeric and polymeric substances, not simply describable with a chemical formula.
The realm of waxes encompasses fully or partly natural, refined, partly or fully synthetic products, which can be extended by “wax-like” products which do not fulfil all definition criteria. Waxes are offered in different forms like pellets, granules, powders, or micropowders. Their number of technical applications runs into thousands. However, waxes in most cases are just adjuvants or additives, and with few exceptions like candles not known to a broader public. Only few publications over the last decades tried to present a more comprehensive overview of heir chemistry, chemical composition, their physical and analytical properties, their applications, and their sometimes astonishing history.
Based on personal experience and expertise, the authors intend to present an overview on the main classes of waxes, their origin, history, future, and potential fate. Economical aspects like market size and development, ecological impacts and challenges, and regulatory issues are also addressed.
Waxes are indispensable products in everyday life and in industry and technology, though mostly not even visible or distinguishable to experts. They deserve more than the role of a “poor cousin” in chemistry and technology.
Table of Contents
Foreword xxv
Part I Natural Waxes 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 General Survey of Waxes 3
1.2 Definitions of Waxes 3
1.3 Brief History of Waxes 5
1.4 Origin of Natural Waxes 18
References 20
2 Waxes in Arts 23
2.1 Waxes in Paintings 23
2.2 Pre-encaustic Painting 24
2.3 The Faiyum Mummy Portraits 25
2.4 Greece and Rome 26
2.5 Post Roman Wax Paintings 27
2.6 Revival of Encaustic 28
2.7 Wax, Effigies, Sculptures, and Masks 30
2.8 Votive Figures in Religion 35
2.9 Wax as Processing Aid in Arts and Craft 37
2.10 Waxes, Crafts, and Arts in the New World 41
2.11 Wax Museums 44
2.12 Summary 45
References 45
3 Photosynthesis of Plant Waxes 47
3.1 Chemical Composition of Plant Waxes 48
3.2 The Biochemical Pathway to Plant Waxes 48
3.3 Photosynthesis to Plant Waxes 49
3.4 Relevant Phases of Photosynthesis: The First Stage of Plant Wax Production 51
3.5 Recent Research Results 55
3.6 From the Calvin Cycle to Wax 56
3.7 Artificial Photosynthesis and Engineering Natural Waxes 60
References 62
Section I Natural Waxes 65
Reference 66
4 The Natural Animal Waxes 67
5 Insect Waxes 69
5.1 Beeswax 69
References 87
6 Other Insect Waxes 89
6.1 Ghedda (Gedda) Wax 89
6.2 Chinese Insect Wax 92
6.3 Shellac Wax 94
References 101
7 Mammalian Animal Waxes 103
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Wool Wax 104
7.3 Mammalian Marine Waxes 113
7.4 Mammalian Human Waxes: Earwax/Cerumen 117
7.5 Marine Waxes 121
7.6 Other Marine Waxes 122
7.7 Bird Waxes 123
References 124
Section II Natural Plant Waxes 127
8 Carnaúba Wax 129
8.1 Introduction 129
8.2 History 130
8.3 General Properties of Carnaúba Wax 132
8.4 Economic Aspects 133
8.5 Origin 133
8.6 Occurrence and Exploitation 134
8.7 Harvesting Carnaúba 135
8.8 Grinding 137
8.9 Micronization 137
8.10 Carnaúba-Wax-Based Emulsions 138
8.11 Types and Specifications 138
8.12 Uses and Applications of Carnaúba Wax Grades 140
8.13 Cosmetics 142
8.14 Care Products 142
8.15 Candles 144
8.16 Printing Inks 144
8.17 Plastics Industry 145
8.18 Varnishes/Coatings 145
8.19 Economic Outlook 145
8.20 Physical and Chemical Properties 146
8.21 Chemical Composition of Carnaúba Wax 146
8.22 Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Carnaúba Wax 148
8.23 Registration Status 149
8.24 Policosanol in Carnaúba Wax 150
References 150
9 Candelilla or the “Great Wax Rush” 153
9.1 History 153
9.2 Occurrence and Isolation 153
9.3 Working Up Candelilla 156
9.4 The Candelilla Wax Value Chain 157
9.5 Main Applications and Uses of Candelilla Wax 157
9.6 Physical and Chemical Properties and Composition of Candelilla Wax 159
9.7 Economic Aspects 162
9.8 Comparison Between Candelilla and Sugarcane Wax 163
9.9 Registration Status 164
References 165
10 Montan Wax 167
10.1 A General Description 167
10.2 The Future of Montan Wax 169
10.3 Formation and Occurrence of Montan Wax 169
10.4 The Origin of Montan Wax 169
10.5 Separation of Montan Wax from Lignite 171
10.6 Extraction 171
10.7 Details of Montan Wax Production 172
10.8 Properties and Composition 173
10.9 Montan Wax Components 174
10.10 Resins and Dark Residues 176
10.11 Applications for Crude Montan Wax 177
10.12 Refining and Derivatization 177
10.13 Further Processing and Refining of Bleached Montan Wax 181
10.14 Derivatization 182
10.15 Uses and Economic Aspects 183
10.16 Selected Technical Applications for Montan Waxes 185
10.17 Registration Status 192
10.18 Montan Wax and Other Natural Wax Substitutes from Linear Alpha Olefins 192
10.19 Modified Linear Alpha Olefin Waxes 194
10.20 Production of Linear Alpha-olefins 196
10.21 Summary of Applications of Alpha-Olefins 200
10.22 Short Overview of Technical Applications of Linear Alpha-olefin Waxes 201
10.23 Peat Wax 202
10.24 Ozokerite Wax 203
References 205
11 Sugarcane Wax 209
11.1 Introduction-General Considerations 209
11.2 Occurrence and Isolation 209
11.3 Production of Sugarcane Worldwide (2018) 210
11.4 Composition of Sugarcane Wax 211
11.5 Separation of Sugarcane Wax 211
11.5.1 Value Chain of Sugar: The Indian Company Godavari Biorefineries Ltd. 211
11.6 Delivery Forms and Composition 213
11.7 Production 214
11.8 Further Applications of Sugarcane Wax 215
11.9 Medical and Dietary Aspects of Sugarcane Wax 216
11.10 Description of Policosanol 216
11.11 Rice Bran Wax 221
References 223
12 Japan Wax 227
12.1 General Reflections About Japan Wax 227
12.2 Refining Japan Wax 228
12.3 Chemical Composition of Japan Wax 229
12.4 Uses of Japan Wax 229
12.5 Economy 230
12.6 Registration Status 230
12.7 Castor Wax or Ricinus Wax 231
12.8 Ricinus communis Linnaeus: “The Umbrella Murder Case” 236
References 237
13 Palm Wax 239
13.1 General Considerations 239
13.2 Origin of Palm Oils 240
13.3 Agriculture of Oil Palm Trees 241
13.4 Extraction of Palm Oil 241
13.5 Palm Kernel Oil 241
13.6 Outlook 243
References 243
14 Wax of Manzanita Leaves 245
14.1 A General 245
14.2 Potential Medical Effects 247
14.3 Manzanita Roots and Smoking Pipes 247
References 248
15 Waxes of Citrus Fruits and Leaves 249
15.1 Chemical Composition 249
15.2 Primary Alcohol Carbon Length Distribution in Citrus Fruits and Leaves 252
15.3 Fatty Acids and Wax Acids Length Distribution 253
15.4 Waxes from Larrea Leaves and Stems 256
15.5 Sunflower Wax 259
15.6 Soy (or Soybean) Wax 262
15.7 Other Waxes from Hydrogenated Oils 263
15.8 Tea Wax 264
15.9 Jasmine Wax 265
15.10 Rose Wax 265
References 266
Part II Synthetic Waxes 269
16 Synthetic Waxes 271
16.1 Introduction 271
16.2 The Building Blocks of Synthetic Waxes: Monomers, Oligomers, and Polymers 272
16.3 Short Introduction to Molar Mass and Distributions 275
16.4 The Chemical Structure of Synthetic Polymer and Chemically Related Waxes 280
16.5 Molecular Structure of Synthetic and Petroleum Waxes 281
16.6 Discrimination Between Waxes and Plastics - A Brief Excursion into Polymer Physics 284
References 287
17 Polyolefin Waxes 289
17.1 General 289
17.2 Industrial Production of Ethylene Polymers: Plastics and Waxes 299
17.3 Market and Economics 316
17.4 Use and Applications 316
References 425
18 Polypropylene Waxes 433
18.1 General Overview 433
18.2 History of Polypropylene Plastics and Waxes 434
18.3 Polypropylene Plastics and Waxes: A Symbiotic Relationship 436
18.4 Chirality and Tacticity: Principles 437
18.5 PP Wax Polymerization Reactions and Processes 441
18.6 Polyethylene and Polypropene Plastics and Waxes: A Comparison 444
18.7 Properties of Polypropylene Waxes 446
18.8 Atactic Polypropylene Wax-like Materials (APO/APAO) 448
18.9 Applications of Polypropylene Waxes 449
18.10 Regulatory Aspects 454
18.11 Economic Aspects 454
References 455
19 Petroleum and Related Crude Oil-Based Waxes 457
19.1 Definitions 457
19.2 Introduction to Paraffin Waxes 458
19.3 History 459
19.4 Petroleum Wax Production from Crude Oil 460
19.5 Refinery Process 462
19.6 Petroleum Waxes are in Order of Refining 486
References 507
20 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) and Waxes 515
20.1 Introduction 515
20.2 History 516
20.3 Fischer-Tropsch Reaction Mechanism 517
20.4 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) 518
20.5 Fischer-Tropsch Waxes - Key Manufacturers 523
20.6 FT Waxes: Chemical and Physical Properties 523
20.7 Oxidized FT Waxes 524
20.8 Liquid Applications of Waxes 526
20.9 Regulatory Compliance 567
References 568
21 Amide Waxes 573
21.1 General 573
21.2 History of Amide Waxes 574
21.3 N,N ′ -Ethylenebis(stearamide): EBS 574
21.4 Applications 576
21.5 Stearamide Wax 588
21.6 Erucamide Wax 590
21.7 Oleamide Wax 592
21.8 Comparison of Anti-blocking and Slip Properties Between Erucamide, Stearamide, and Oleamide Waxes 594
21.9 N,N ′ -Ethylene-bis-Oleamide (EBO) 596
References 598
22 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Waxes 601
22.1 Introduction 601
22.2 Resume 614
References 615
Appendix A Final Tables A.I-A.V: Listing of Aliphatic Compounds in Waxes 617
References 637
Appendix B Candles - A Most Popular Application Area for Waxes 639
B.1 Short Summary 639
B.2 Candles in Religion 642
B.3 Candles in Modern Science 646
References 647
Appendix C Test Methods for Characterizing Waxes 649
C.1 Test Methods for Waxes 649
C.2 Safety Data Sheets 651
Epilogue: The Future of Waxes 653
Index 655
