Will your organization be protected the day a quantum computer breaks encryption on the internet?
Computer encryption is vital for protecting users, data, and infrastructure in the digital age. Using traditional computing, even common desktop encryption could take decades for specialized ‘crackers’ to break and government and infrastructure-grade encryption would take billions of times longer. In light of these facts, it may seem that today’s computer cryptography is a rock-solid way to safeguard everything from online passwords to the backbone of the entire internet. Unfortunately, many current cryptographic methods will soon be obsolete. In 2016, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) predicted that quantum computers will soon be able to break the most popular forms of public key cryptography. The encryption technologies we rely on every day - HTTPS, TLS, WiFi protection, VPNs, cryptocurrencies, PKI, digital certificates, smartcards, and most two-factor authentication - will be virtually useless. . . unless you prepare.
Cryptography Apocalypse is a crucial resource for every IT and InfoSec professional for preparing for the coming quantum-computing revolution. Post-quantum crypto algorithms are already a reality, but implementation will take significant time and computing power. This practical guide helps IT leaders and implementers make the appropriate decisions today to meet the challenges of tomorrow. This important book:
- Gives a simple quantum mechanics primer
- Explains how quantum computing will break current cryptography
- Offers practical advice for preparing for a post-quantum world
- Presents the latest information on new cryptographic methods
- Describes the appropriate steps leaders must take to implement existing solutions to guard against quantum-computer security threats
Cryptography Apocalypse: Preparing for the Day When Quantum Computing Breaks Today's Crypto is a must-have guide for anyone in the InfoSec world who needs to know if their security is ready for the day crypto break and how to fix it.
Table of Contents
Introduction xxi
I Quantum Computing Primer 1
1 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 3
What is Quantum Mechanics? 3
Quantum is Counterintuitive 4
Quantum Mechanics is Real 5
The Basic Properties of Quantum Mechanics 8
Photons and Quantum Mechanics 8
Photoelectric Effect 9
Wave-Particle Duality 10
Probability Principle 14
Uncertainty Principle 17
Spin States and Charges 20
Quantum Tunneling 20
Superposition 21
Observer Effect 22
No-Cloning Theorem 24
Spooky Entanglement 24
Decoherence 25
Quantum Examples in Our World Today 27
For Additional Information 28
Summary 29
2 Introduction to Quantum Computers 31
How are Quantum Computers Different? 31
Traditional Computers Use Bits 31
Quantum Computers Use Qubits 33
Quantum Computers are Not Ready for Prime Time Yet 37
Quantum Will Reign Supreme Soon 38
Quantum Computers Improve Qubits Using Error Correction 39
Types of Quantum Computers 44
Superconducting Quantum Computers 44
Quantum Annealing Computers 45
Universal Quantum Computers 47
Topological Quantum Computers 49
Microsoft Majorana Fermion Computers 50
Ion Trap Quantum Computers 51
Quantum Computers in the Cloud 53
Non-U.S. Quantum Computers 53
Components of a Quantum Computer 54
Quantum Software 55
Quantum Stack 55
Quantum National Guidance 56
National Policy Guidance 56
Money Grants and Investments 56
Other Quantum Information Science Besides Computers 57
For More Information 58
Summary 58
3 How Can Quantum Computing Break Today’s Cryptography? 59
Cryptography Basics 59
Encryption 59
Integrity Hashing 72
Cryptographic Uses 73
How Quantum Computers Can Break Cryptography 74
Cutting Time 74
Quantum Algorithms 76
What Quantum Can and Can’t Break 79
Still Theoretical 82
Summary 83
4 When Will the Quantum Crypto Break Happen? 85
It Was Always “10 Years from Now” 85
Quantum Crypto Break Factors 86
Is Quantum Mechanics Real? 86
Are Quantum Computers Real? 87
Is Superposition Real? 87
Is Peter Shor’s Algorithm Real? 88
Do We Have Enough Stable Qubits? 88
Quantum Resources and Competition 89
Do We Have Steady Improvement? 89
Expert Opinions 90
When the Quantum Cyber Break Will Happen 90
Timing Scenarios 90
When Should You Prepare? 93
Breakout Scenarios 95
Stays in the Realm of Nation-States for a Long Time 95
Used by Biggest Companies 97
Mass Proliferation 97
Most Likely Breakout Scenario 97
Summary 98
5 What Will a Post-Quantum World Look Like? 99
Broken Applications 99
Weakened Hashes and Symmetric Ciphers 100
Broken Asymmetric Ciphers 103
Weakened and Broken Random Number Generators 103
Weakened or Broken Dependent Applications 104
Quantum Computing 114
Quantum Computers 114
Quantum Processors 115
Quantum Clouds 115
Quantum Cryptography Will Be Used 116
Quantum Perfect Privacy 116
Quantum Networking Arrives 117
Quantum Applications 117
Better Chemicals and Medicines 118
Better Batteries 118
True Artificial Intelligence 119
Supply Chain Management 120
Quantum Finance 120
Improved Risk Management 120
Quantum Marketing 120
Better Weather Prediction 121
Quantum Money 121
Quantum Simulation 122
More Precise Military and Weapons 122
Quantum Teleportation 122
Summary 126
II Preparing for the Quantum Break 127
6 Quantum-Resistant Cryptography 129
NIST Post-Quantum Contest 129
NIST Security Strength Classifications 132
PKE vs. KEM 133
Formal Indistinguishability Assurances 134
Key and Ciphertext Sizes 135
Types of Post-Quantum Algorithms 136
Code-Based Cryptography 136
Hash-Based Cryptography 137
Lattice-Based Cryptography 138
Multivariate Cryptography 140
Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogeny Cryptography 140
Zero-Knowledge Proof 141
Symmetric Key Quantum Resistance 142
Quantum-Resistant Asymmetric Encryption Ciphers 143
BIKE 145
Classic McEliece 145
CRYSTALS-Kyber 146
FrodoKEM 146
HQC 147
LAC 148
LEDAcrypt 148
NewHope 149
NTRU 149
NTRU Prime 150
NTS-KEM 150
ROLLO 151
Round5 151
RQC 151
SABER 152
SIKE 152
ThreeBears 153
General Observations on PKE and KEM Key and Ciphertext Sizes 155
Quantum-Resistant Digital Signatures 156
CRYSTALS-Dilithium 156
FALCON 157
GeMSS 158
LUOV 158
MQDSS 159
Picnic 159
qTESLA 160
Rainbow 160
SPHINCS+ 161
General Observations on Signature Key and Sizes 162
Caution Advised 164
A Lack of Standards 164
Performance Concerns 165
Lack of Verified Protection 165
For Additional Information 166
Summary 166
7 Quantum Cryptography 167
Quantum RNGs 168
Random is Not Always Random 168
Why is True Randomness So Important? 170
Quantum-Based RNGs 172
Quantum Hashes and Signatures 177
Quantum Hashes 177
Quantum Digital Signatures 178
Quantum Encryption Ciphers 180
Quantum Key Distribution 181
Summary 188
8 Quantum Networking 189
Quantum Network Components 189
Transmission Media 189
Distance vs. Speed 191
Point-to-Point 192
Trusted Repeaters 193
True Quantum Repeaters 194
Quantum Network Protocols 196
Quantum Network Applications 199
More Secure Networks 199
Quantum Computing Cloud 200
Better Time Syncing 200
Prevent Jamming 201
Quantum Internet 202
Other Quantum Networks 203
For More Information 204
Summary 204
9 Preparing Now 207
Four Major Post-Quantum Mitigation Phases 207
Stage 1: Strengthen Current Solutions 207
Stage 2: Move to Quantum-Resistant Solutions 211
Stage 3: Implement Quantum-Hybrid Solutions 213
Stage 4: Implement Fully Quantum Solutions 214
The Six Major Post-Quantum Mitigation Project Steps 214
Step 1: Educate 215
Step 2: Create a Plan 220
Step 3: Collect Data 225
Step 4: Analyze 226
Step 5: Take Action/Remediate 228
Step 6: Review and Improve 230
Summary 230
Appendix: Additional Quantum Resources 231
Index 239
