This book provides a thorough scientific review of how Mars might eventually be colonized, industrialized, and transformed into a world better suited to human habitation.
The idea of terraforming Mars has, in recent times, become a topic of intense scientific interest and great public debate. Stimulated in part by the contemporary imperative to begin geoengineering Earth, as a means to combat global climate change, the terraforming of Mars will work to make its presently hostile environment more suitable to life - especially human life. Geoengineering and terraforming, at their core, have the same goal - that is to enhance (or revive) the ability of a specific environment to support human life, society, and industry. The chapters in this text, written by experts in their respective fields, are accordingly in resonance with the important, and ongoing discussions concerning the human stewardship of global climate systems. In this sense, the text is both timely and relevant and will cover issues relating to topics that will only grow in their relevance in future decades. The notion of terraforming Mars is not a new one, as such, and it has long played as the background narrative in many science fiction novels. This book, however, deals exclusively with what is physically possible, and what might conceivably be put into actual practice within the next several human generations.
Audience
Researchers in planetary science, astronomy, astrobiology, space engineering, architecture, ethics, as well as members of the space industry.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
Part 1: Introduction 1
1 Terraforming and Colonizing Mars 3
Giancarlo Genta
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Earth: A Terraformed Planet 4
1.3 Planetary Environments 6
1.4 Terraforming Mars 10
1.5 The Role of Solar Wind 15
1.6 Ethical Aspects 16
1.7 Venus, Moon, Titan… 19
References 21
Part 2: Engineering Mars 23
2 Terraforming Worlds: Humans Playing Games of Gods 25
Nilo Serpa and Richard Cathcart
Early Mars 26
Oceans Here and There 28
The Mars We are Creating Here 30
Mars: An Arena of Delusions? 34
References 35
3 Mars, A Stepping-Stone World, Macro-Engineered 37
Richard B. Cathcart
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Mars-Crust as Kinetic Architecture 38
3.3 A Crust-Infrastructure Mixture 39
3.4 Infrastructure and Life-Styles 40
3.5 Atmosphere Enhancements for Mars 44
3.6 Between Then and Now 46
Acknowledgments 48
References 48
4 Efficient Martian Settlement with the Mars Terraformer Transfer (MATT) and the Omaha Trail 51
Gary Stewart
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Construction Efficiencies of MATT’s Small-Scale Terraformation 52
4.2.1 Impact Terraformation for Settlement 52
4.2.2 Impactor Redirection with DE-STARLITE 55
4.2.3 Subaqueous Hab Network at Omaha Crater 57
4.3 Provisioning Efficiencies of the Omaha Trail 61
4.3.1 Deimos Dock 63
4.3.2 Mars Lift 64
4.3.3 Arestation 66
4.3.4 Deimos Rail Launcher (DRL) 66
4.4 Cosmic Ray Protection: From Omaha Trail to Omaha Shield 67
4.5 Conclusion 68
References 69
5 Mars Colonization: Beyond Getting There 73
Igor Levchenko, Shuyan Xu, Stéphane Mazouffre, Michael Keidar and Kateryna Bazaka
5.1 Mars Colonization - Do We Need it? 73
5.2 Legal Considerations 78
5.2.1 Do Earth Laws Apply To Mars Colonists? 78
5.2.2 Sovereignty 79
5.2.3 Human Rights 80
5.2.4 Abortion 82
5.3 Ethical Considerations 83
5.3.1 General 83
5.3.2 Human Reproduction - Ethical Considerations 84
5.3.3 Social Isolation and No Privacy - Rolled into One 85
5.3.4 Advocacy for Mars - is it Ethical at All to Colonize it? 86
5.4 Consideration of Resources 88
5.5 Quo Vadis, the Only Civilization We Know? 89
5.6 Afterword. Where are We Three Years Later? 89
5.6.1 Current Programs and Their Status - in Brief 89
5.6.2 Any News About Mars? 90
5.6.3 Tasks and Challenges 90
Acknowledgements 92
References 92
Part 3: Ethical Exploration 99
6 The Ethics of Terraforming: A Critical Survey of Six Arguments 101
Ian Stoner
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 Audience and Method 102
6.3 Preservationist Arguments 103
6.3.1 We Should Preserve Mars’s Value as a Unique Object of Scientific Interest 103
6.3.2 We Should Preserve the Integrity of the Martian Wilderness 104
6.3.3 We Should Avoid Expressing Colonialist Vices 106
6.4 Interventionist Arguments 108
6.4.1 We Should Fulfill our Inborn Nature as Pioneers 108
6.4.2 We Should Increase Our Species’ Chance of Long-Term Survival 109
6.4.3 We Should Rehabilitate Mars for Martians 112
6.5 Conclusion 113
Acknowledgments 114
References 114
7 Homo Reductio Eco-Nihilism and Human Colonization of Other Worlds 117
Kelly Smith
7.1 Introduction 117
7.2 Implicit Assumptions 119
7.3 Conclusion 121
Acknowledgements 122
References 122
8 Ethical, Political and Legal Challenges Relating to Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 123
Konrad Szocik
8.1 Introduction 123
8.2 Ethical Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 124
8.3 Ethics of Human Enhancement for Space 125
8.4 Environmental Ethics in Space 125
8.5 Political Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 127
8.6 Legal Issues in Colonizing and Terraforming Mars 128
8.7 Sexual and Reproductive Laws in a Mars Colony 129
8.8 Migration Law in Space 130
8.9 Why Terraforming Mars May Be Necessary from Ethical, Political and Legal Perspectives 132
8.10 Conclusions 133
References 133
Part 4: Indigenous Life on Mars 135
9 Life on Mars: Past, Present, and Future 137
Martin Beech and Mark Comte
9.1 A Very Brief Historical Introduction 137
9.2 Indigenous Life: Past and Present 141
9.2.1 Beginnings 145
9.2.2 The Viking Experiments 148
9.2.3 Martian Meteorites 149
9.2.4 In Plain Sight 151
9.3 Seeded Life: The Future 154
9.4 Per Aspera ad Astra 156
References 157
10 Terraforming on Early Mars? 161
M. Polgári, I. Gyollai and Sz. Bérczi
10.1 Introduction 162
10.1.1 Aspects of Biogenicity 163
10.1.2 Methodology 163
10.1.3 Multihierarchical System Analyses 164
10.2 Outline of Section 10.2 167
10.2.1 Review of Research on Martian Life 167
10.2.2 Biosignatures in Martian Meteorites Based on Mineralogical and Textural Investigation 169
10.2.3 Biosignatures in Chondritic Meteorites 169
10.2.3.1 Interpretations 175
10.2.3.2 Clay Formation 182
10.2.3.3 Interpretation No 1 183
10.2.3.4 Interpretation No 2 (Preferred) 183
10.2.4 Terrestrial Analogues of Biosignatures 186
10.2.5 Implications to Terraforming of Ancient Life on Mars on the Basis of Terrestrial and Meteoritic Analogues 199
10.3 Novel Interpretation of the Formation Process Based on Mineral Assemblages 265
10.3.1 Martian Meteorites 265
10.3.2 Interpretation of Mineral Assemblages on Mars 265
10.3.3 Novel Interpretation of Mineral Dataset of Exploration of Curiosity in Gale Crater 267
10.4 Conclusion 268
Acknowledgment 270
References 270
Part 5: Living on Mars 281
11 Omaha Field - A Magnetostatic Cosmic Radiation Shield for a Crewed Mars Facility 283
Gary Stewart
11.1 Introduction 283
11.2 Methods 284
11.2.1 Software 284
11.2.2 Testing 284
11.3 Design 284
11.3.1 Crater 284
11.3.2 Current 285
11.3.3 Circuits 287
11.4 Results 288
11.4.1 Shielding Against 500 MeV Protons 288
11.4.2 Shielding Against 1 GeV Protons 289
11.4.3 Shielding Effectiveness in the Mars Environment 290
11.5 Discussion 291
11.5.1 Electrostatics 291
11.5.2 Refrigeration 291
11.5.3 Self-Shielding Solenoids 292
11.5.4 Alternate Self-Shielding and Source-Shielding 293
11.5.5 Safety in Transit Across Crater Rim 294
11.5.6 Safety in Spacecraft Launch and Landing 295
References 295
12 Mars Future Settlements: Active Radiation Shielding and Design Criteria About Habitats and Infrastructures 297
Marco Peroni
12.1 Introduction 297
12.2 The Problem of Cosmic Radiations 298
12.3 The Protection System with Artificial Magnetic Fields 299
12.4 Details of Our Proposal 302
12.5 Further Developments 309
12.6 Modular Settlement on Mars 309
Acknowledgments 312
References 312
13 Crop Growth and Viability of Seeds on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants 313
G.W.W. Wamelink, J.Y. Frissel, W.H.J. Krijnen and M.R. Verwoert
13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Materials and Methods 314
13.2.1 Regoliths 314
13.2.2 Species Selection 315
13.2.3 Organic Matter and Bacteria 316
13.2.4 Experimental Design 317
13.2.5 Harvest and Measurements 317
13.3 Results 318
13.3.1 Fruit Setting and Biomass 318
13.3.2 Seed Weight and Germination 318
13.4 Discussion 319
13.5 Outlook Issues for the Future 320
Acknowledgements 322
References 322
Appendix 324
14 The First Settlement of Mars 331
Chris Hajduk
14.1 Introduction 331
14.2 Colony Location 332
14.3 Colony Timeline 333
14.3.1 Setup Phase 333
14.3.2 Investment Phase 334
14.3.3 Self-Sufficiency 335
14.4 Colony Design 335
14.5 The Basics - Power, Air, Water, Food 336
14.5.1 Food 336
14.5.2 Water 339
14.5.3 Air 341
14.5.4 Power 342
14.6 The Material World 343
14.6.1 Metals 344
14.6.2 Plastics 344
14.6.3 Ceramics and Composites 344
14.6.4 Mining 344
14.7 Exports, Economics, Investment and Cash Flow 346
14.7.1 Interplanetary Real Estate 346
14.7.2 Intellectual Property Export 347
14.7.3 Research Tourism 347
14.7.4 Investment and Cash Flow 347
14.8 Politics - A Socialist’s World 349
14.9 Conclusion and Further Thoughts 349
References 349
Part 6: In Situ Resources 353
15 Vulcanism on Mars 355
Ian M. Coulson
15.1 Introduction 355
15.2 Martian Geology 356
15.2.1 Mars: Creation and Thermal Evolution 357
15.2.2 The Martian Crust 358
15.3 Vulcanism 358
15.3.1 Types of Volcanoes 359
15.3.1.1 Earth 359
15.3.1.2 Mars 361
15.3.2 Recognition of Other Styles of Vulcanism 363
15.3.3 Martian Meteorites 364
15.3.4 Is Mars Still Volcanically Active? 366
References 367
16 Potential Impact-Related Mineral Resources on Mars 371
Jake R. Crandall, Justin Filiberto and Sally L. Potter-McIntyre
Introduction 371
Terrestrial Ore Deposit Types Associated with Impact Craters 374
Progenetic Deposits 374
Syngenetic Deposits 376
Epigenetic Deposits 377
Martian Target Craters 377
Ritchey Crater 377
Contents xi
Gale Crater 378
Gusev Crater 380
Conclusions 381
References 382
17 Red Gold - Practical Methods for Precious-Metal Survey, Open-Pit Mining, and Open-Air Refining on Mars 389
Gary Stewart
17.1 Introduction 389
17.2 Martian Precious-Metal Ore from Asteroids 390
17.3 Martian Precious-Metal Survey and Physical Assay 392
17.4 “Mars Base Alpha” - A Red Gold Mining Camp 394
17.5 Semi-Autonomous Open-Pit Mining 396
17.6 Comminution and Separation of Meteorite Ore 396
17.7 Extracting Metals with Induction/Microwave Smelter 397
17.8 Refining with Hydrometallurgical Recovery and the Miller Process 398
17.9 Separating Precious Metals with Saltwater Electrolysis 400
17.10 Kovar Foundry 400
17.11 Maximizing ISRU, Minimizing Mass and Complexity 402
17.12 Scale-Up and Scale-Out 405
17.13 Conclusion, with Observations and Recommendations 407
References 409
Part 7: Terraforming Mars 415
18 Terraforming Mars: A Cabinet of Curiosities 417
Martin Beech
18.1 Introduction and Overview 417
18.2 Planet Mars: A Brief Observational History and Overview 425
18.3 The Beginnings of Change 428
18.4 The Foundations 431
18.5 First Blush 438
18.6 Digging In 441
18.7 (re)Building the Martian Atmosphere 446
18.8 Magnetic Shielding 454
18.9 Heating the Ground 457
18.10 A Question of Time 458
18.11 Conclusions 460
References 461
19 Terraforming Mars Rapidly Using Today’s Level of Technology 467
Mark Culaj
19.1 Introduction 467
19.2 Solar Wind 468
19.2.1 Solar Wind Abundances 469
19.2.2 Magnetic Lens 469
19.3 Conclusions 475
Acknowledgments 477
References 477
20 System Engineering Analysis of Terraforming Mars with an Emphasis on Resource Importation Technology 479
Brandon Wong
20.1 Summary 479
20.2 Introduction 480
20.3 Key Problem 482
20.4 Key Stakeholders 482
20.5 Goals 483
20.6 Macro Level Alternatives 483
20.6.1 Terraforming 483
20.6.2 Paraterraforming 484
20.6.3 Bioforming 485
20.7 Macro-Level Trade Study 486
20.8 Macro-Level Conclusions 487
20.8.1 Concept of Operations 487
20.8.2 High-Level Requirements 487
20.8.3 Requirements Decomposition 487
20.8.4 Macro High-Level Design 488
20.9 Terraforming Efforts System - Detailed Requirements 489
20.10 Space Transportation System 492
20.11 Importing Resources Subsystem 492
20.11.1 Resources Needed 492
20.11.2 Resource Locations 493
20.11.3 Subsystem Needs 494
20.11.3.1 Subsystem Goals for Importing Resources Subsystem 494
20.11.3.2 Detailed Requirements for Importing Resources Subsystem 494
20.11.3.3 Alternatives for the Importing Resources Subsystem 495
20.11.3.4 Importing Resources Trade Study 504
20.11.3.5 Findings 506
20.11.3.6 Importing Resources Subsystem Design 506
20.12 Risks 507
20.12.1 Macro-Level Risks 507
20.12.2 Importing Resources Subsystem Risks 509
20.13 Lean Strategies 511
20.14 Ethical Considerations 512
20.15 Overall Conclusions 513
20.15.1 Proposed Implementation Plan 513
20.16 Acknowledgements 514
20.17 Appendix 514
20.17.1 Requirements Flowdown to System Implementation 514
References 530
21 The Potential of Pioneer Lichens in Terraforming Mars 533
Richard A. Armstrong
21.1 Introduction 533
21.2 Potential Role of Lichens in Terraformation 534
21.3 Exploiting Indigenous Lichens 536
21.4 Exploiting Lichen Symbionts on Mars 538
21.5 Inoculating Lichen Symbionts from Earth Cultures 540
21.6 Transplanting Terrestrial Lichens to Mars 541
21.7 Conclusions 546
References 547
Index 555
