The 2nd edition of this successful Handbook explores the extensive and growing applications made with bioplastics and biocomposites for the packaging, automotive, biomedical, and construction industries.
Bioplastics are materials that are being researched as a possible replacement for petroleum-based traditional plastics to make them more environmentally friendly. They are made from renewable resources and may be naturally recycled through biological processes, conserving natural resources and reducing CO2 emissions.
The 30 chapters in the Handbook of Bioplastics and Biocomposites Engineering Applications discuss a wide range of technologies and classifications concerned with bioplastics and biocomposites with their applications in various paradigms including the engineering segment. Chapters cover the biobased materials; recycling of bioplastics; biocomposites modeling; various biomedical and engineering-based applications including optical devices, smart materials, cosmetics, drug delivery, clinical, electrochemical, industrial, flame retardant, sports, packaging, disposables, and biomass. The different approaches to sustainability are also treated.
Audience
The Handbook will be of central interest to engineers, scientists, and researchers who are working in the fields of bioplastics, biocomposites, biomaterials for biomedical engineering, biochemistry, and materials science. The book will also be of great importance to engineers in many industries including automotive, biomedical, construction, and food packaging.
Table of Contents
Preface xxi
Part I: Bioplastics, Synthesis and Process Technology 1
1 An Introduction to Engineering Applications of Bioplastics 3
Andreea Irina Barzic
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Classification of Bioplastics 4
1.3 Physical Properties 5
1.3.1 Rheological Properties 5
1.3.2 Optical Properties 6
1.3.3 Mechanical and Thermal Properties 7
1.3.4 Electrical Properties 7
1.4 Applications of Bioplastics in Engineering 8
1.4.1 Bioplastics Applications in Sensors 8
1.4.2 Bioplastics Applications in Energy Sector 10
1.4.3 Bioplastics Applications in Bioengineering 12
1.4.4 Bioplastics Applications in “Green” Electronics 13
1.5 Conclusions 16
Acknowledgement 17
Dedication 17
References 17
2 Biobased Materials: Types and Sources 23
Kushairi Mohd Salleh, Amalia Zulkifli, Nyak Syazwani Nyak Mazlan and Sarani Zakaria
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Biodegradable Biobased Material 25
2.2.1 Polysaccharides 25
2.2.2 Starch 26
2.2.3 Polylactic Acid 28
2.2.4 Cellulose 29
2.2.5 Esters 30
2.2.6 Ether 31
2.2.7 Chitosan 32
2.2.8 Alginate 33
2.2.9 Proteins 35
2.2.10 Gluten 36
2.2.11 Gelatine 37
2.2.12 Casein 38
2.2.13 Lipid 39
2.2.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 40
2.3 Nonbiodegradable Biobased Material 41
2.3.1 Polyethylene (PE) 41
2.3.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 42
2.3.3 Polyamide (PA) 43
2.4 Conclusion 44
Acknowledgment 45
References 45
3 Bioplastic From Renewable Biomass 49
N.B. Singh, Anindita De, Saroj K. Shukla and Mridula Guin
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Plastics and Bioplastics 50
3.2.1 Plastics 50
3.2.2 Bioplastics 51
3.3 Classification of Bioplastics 51
3.4 Bioplastic Production 53
3.4.1 Biowaste to Bioplastic 53
3.4.1.1 Lipid Rich Waste 53
3.4.2 Milk Industry Waste 54
3.4.3 Sugar Industry Waste 54
3.4.4 Spent Coffee Beans Waste 55
3.4.5 Bioplastic Agro-Forestry Residue 55
3.4.6 Bioplastic from Microorganism 56
3.4.7 Biomass-Based Polymers 57
3.4.7.1 Biomass-Based Monomers for Polymerization Process 57
3.5 Characterization of Bioplastics 58
3.6 Applications of Bioplastics 60
3.6.1 Food Packaging 60
3.6.2 Agricultural Applications 60
3.6.3 Biomedical Applications 63
3.7 Bioplastic Waste Management Strategies 65
3.7.1 Recycling of Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA) 65
3.7.1.1 Mechanical Recycling of PLA 65
3.7.1.2 Chemical Recycling of PLA 65
3.7.2 Recycling of Poly Hydroxy Alkanoates (PHAs) 67
3.7.3 Landfill 68
3.7.4 Incineration 68
3.7.5 Composting 68
3.7.6 Anaerobic Digestion 68
3.7.6.1 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) 69
3.7.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Lactic Acid) 69
3.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 70
References 71
4 Modeling of Natural Fiber-Based Biocomposites 81
Fatima-Zahra Semlali Aouragh Hassani, Mounir El Achaby, Abou el Kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Generality of Biocomposites 82
4.2.1 Natural Matrix 83
4.2.2 Natural Reinforcement 84
4.2.3 Natural Fiber Classification 84
4.2.4 Biocomposites Processing 85
4.2.4.1 Extrusion and Injection 85
4.2.4.2 Compression Molding 86
4.2.5 RTM-Resin Transfer Molding 86
4.2.6 Hand Lay-Up Technique 86
4.3 Parameters Affecting the Biocomposites Properties 87
4.3.1 Fiber’s Aspect Ratio 87
4.3.2 Fiber/Matrix Interfacial Adhesion 88
4.3.3 Fibers Orientation and Dispersion 89
4.3.3.1 Short Fibers Orientation 89
4.3.3.2 Fiber’s Orientation in Simple Shear Flow 90
4.3.3.3 Fiber’s Orientation in Elongational Flow 90
4.4 Process Molding of Biocomposites 92
4.4.1 Unidirectional Fibers 93
4.4.1.1 Classical Laminate Theory 93
4.4.1.2 Rule of Mixture 93
4.4.1.3 Halpin-Tsai Model 95
4.4.1.4 Hui-Shia Model 95
4.4.2 Random Fibers 96
4.4.2.1 Hirsch Model 96
4.4.2.2 Self-Consistent Approach (Modified Hirsch Model) 97
4.4.2.3 Tsai-Pagano Model 97
4.5 Conclusion 97
References 98
5 Process Modeling in Biocomposites 103
Joy Hoskeri H., Nivedita Pujari S. and Arun K. Shettar
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Biopolymer Composites 104
5.2.1 Natural Fiber-Based Biopolymer Composites 104
5.2.2 Applications of Biopolymer Composites 105
5.2.3 Properties of Biopolymer Composites 107
5.3 Classification of Biocomposites 108
5.3.1 PLA Biocomposites 109
5.3.2 Nanobiocomposites 109
5.3.3 Hybrid Biocomposites 109
5.3.4 Natural Fiber-Based Composites 109
5.4 Process Modeling of Biocomposite Models 110
5.4.1 Compression Moulding 110
5.4.2 Injection Moulding 111
5.4.3 Extrusion Method 112
5.5 Formulation of Models 112
5.5.1 Types of Model 113
5.6 Conclusion 113
References 115
6 Microbial Technology in Bioplastic Production and Engineering 121
Dileep Francis and Deepu Joy Parayil
6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 Fundamental Principles of Microbial Bioplastic Production 123
6.3 Bioplastics Obtained Directly from Microorganisms 125
6.3.1 Pha 125
6.3.2 Poly (γ-Glutamic Acid) (PGA) 129
6.4 Bioplastics from Microbial Monomers 130
6.4.1 Bioplastics from Aliphatic Monomers 130
6.4.1.1 Pla 130
6.4.1.2 Poly (Butylene Succinate) 133
6.4.1.3 Biopolyamides (Nylons) 134
6.4.1.4 1, 3-Propanediol (PDO) 137
6.4.2 Bioplastics from Aromatic Monomers 137
6.5 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioplastic Production 138
6.6 Conclusion 140
References 140
7 Synthesis of Green Bioplastics 149
J.E. Castanheiro, P.A. Mourão and I. Cansado
7.1 Introduction 149
7.2 Bioplastic 150
7.2.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 150
7.2.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 151
7.2.3 Cellulose 152
7.2.4 Starch 153
7.3 Renewable Raw Material to Produce Bioplastic 153
7.3.1 Raw Material from Agriculture 153
7.3.2 Organic Waste as Resources for Bioplastic Production 153
7.3.3 Algae as Resources for Bioplastic Production 153
7.3.4 Wastewater as Resources for Bioplastic Production 154
7.4 Bioplastics Applications 155
7.4.1 Food Industry 155
7.4.2 Agricultural Applications 156
7.4.3 Medical Applications 156
7.4.4 Other Applications 156
7.5 Conclusions 156
References 157
8 Natural Oil-Based Sustainable Materials for a Green Strategy 161
Figen Balo, Berrak Aksakal , Lutfu S. Sua and Zeliha Mahmat
8.1 Introduction 161
8.2 Methodology 164
8.2.1 Entropy Methodology 165
8.2.2 Copras Methodology 167
8.3 Conclusions 171
References 172
Part II: Applications of Bioplastics in Health and Hygiene 175
9 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics 177
Syed Tareq, Jaison Jeevanandam, Caleb Acquah and Michael K. Danquah
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Synthesis of Bioplastics 180
9.2.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics 181
9.2.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastics 181
9.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan 181
9.2.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 181
9.2.5 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 182
9.2.6 Bioplastics from Microalgae 182
9.3 Properties of Bioplastics 183
9.3.1 Material Strength 183
9.3.2 Electrical, Mechanical, and Optical Behavior of Bioplastic 184
9.4 Biological Properties of Bioplastics 184
9.5 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics 185
9.5.1 Antimicrobial Property 185
9.5.2 Biocontrol Agents 187
9.5.3 Pharmaceutical Applications of Bioplastics 187
9.5.4 Implantation 188
9.5.5 Tissue Engineering Applications 189
9.5.6 Memory Enhancer 189
9.6 Limitations 190
9.7 Conclusion 191
References 191
10 Applications of Bioplastics in Hygiene Cosmetic 199
Anuradha and Jagvir Singh
10.1 Introduction 199
10.2 The Need to Find an Alternative to Plastic 200
10.3 Bioplastics 201
10.3.1 Characteristic of Bioplastics 201
10.3.2 Types (Classification) 202
10.3.3 Uses of Bioplastics 202
10.4 Resources of Bioplastic 202
10.4.1 Polysaccharides 202
10.4.2 Starch or Amylum 202
10.4.3 Cellulose 203
10.4.3.1 Source of Cellulose 204
10.5 Use of Biodegradable Materials in Packaging 204
10.6 Bionanocomposite 204
10.7 Hygiene Cosmetic Packaging 206
10.8 Conclusion 206
References 207
11 Biodegradable Polymers in Drug Delivery 211
Ariane Regina Souza Rossin, Fabiana Cardoso Lima, Camila Cassia Cordeiro, Erica Fernanda Poruczinski, Josiane Caetano and Douglas Cardoso Dragunski
11.1 Introduction 211
11.2 Biodegradable Polymer (BP) 212
11.2.1 Natural 212
11.2.1.1 Polysaccharides 213
11.2.1.2 Proteins 214
11.2.2 Synthetic 214
11.2.2.1 Polyesters 215
11.2.2.2 Polyanhydrides 215
11.2.2.3 Polycarbonates 216
11.2.2.4 Polyphosphazenes 216
11.2.2.5 Polyurethanes 216
11.3 Device Types 217
11.3.1 Three-Dimensional Printing Devices 217
11.3.1.1 Implants 217
11.3.1.2 Tablets 217
11.3.1.3 Microneedles 218
11.3.1.4 Nanofibers 218
11.3.2 Nanocarriers 218
11.3.2.1 Nanoparticles 218
11.3.2.2 Dendrimers 219
11.3.2.3 Hydrogels 219
11.4 Applications 219
11.4.1 Intravenous 219
11.4.2 Transdermal 220
11.4.3 Oral 221
11.4.4 Ocular 221
11.5 Existing Materials in the Market 221
11.6 Conclusions and Future Projections 222
References 223
12 Microorganism-Derived Bioplastics for Clinical Applications 229
Namrata Sangwan, Arushi Chauhan, Jitender Singh and Pramod K. Avti
12.1 Introduction 229
12.2 Types of Bioplastics 231
12.2.1 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) 231
12.2.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 232
12.2.3 Poly-Lactic Acid 233
12.2.4 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) 234
12.2.5 Poly (ԑ-caprolactone) (PCL) 235
12.3 Properties of Bioplastics 235
12.3.1 Physiochemical, Mechanical, and Biological Properties of Bioplastics 236
12.3.1.1 Polylactic Acid 236
12.3.1.2 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid 236
12.3.1.3 Polycaprolactone 237
12.3.1.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 237
12.3.1.5 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 238
12.4 Applications 238
12.4.1 Tissue Engineering 238
12.4.2 Drug Delivery System 240
12.4.3 Implants and Prostheses 242
12.5 Conclusion 244
References 245
13 Biomedical Applications of Biocomposites Derived From Cellulose 251
Subhajit Kundu, Debarati Mitra and Mahuya Das
13.1 Introduction 251
13.2 Importance of Cellulose in the Field of Biocomposite 252
13.3 Classification of Cellulose 252
13.4 Synthesis of Cellulose in Different Form 253
13.4.1 Mechanical Extraction 253
13.4.2 Electrochemical Method 254
13.4.3 Chemical Extraction 254
13.4.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 254
13.4.5 Bacterial Production of Cellulose 256
13.5 Formation of Biocomposite Using Different Form of Cellulose 256
13.6 Biocomposites Derived from Cellulose and Their Application 258
13.6.1 Tissue Engineering 259
13.6.2 Wound Dressing 260
13.6.3 Drug Delivery 262
13.6.4 Dental Applications 263
13.6.5 Other Applications 264
13.7 Conclusion 265
References 266
14 Biobased Materials for Biomedical Engineering 275
Ioana Duceac, Fulga Tanasă, Mărioara Nechifor and Carmen-Alice Teacă
14.1 Introduction 275
14.2 Biomaterials 277
14.3 Biobased Materials for Implants and Tissue Engineering 279
14.3.1 Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Dressings 280
14.3.2 Bone Tissue Engineering 282
14.3.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering 284
14.3.4 Ligament and Tendon Implants and Tissue Engineering 285
14.3.5 Cardiovascular Implants and Tissue Engineering 285
14.3.5.1 Valve Implants 285
14.3.5.2 Artificial Heart/Cardiac Patches 286
14.3.5.3 Vascular Grafts and TE 286
14.3.6 Liver Tissue Engineering and Bioreactors 287
14.3.7 Kidney Tissue Engineering and Dialysis Devices 288
14.3.8 Nervous Tissue Engineering and Implants 288
14.4 Auxiliary Materials 289
14.5 Conclusion and Future Trends 291
References 292
15 Applications of Bioplastics in Sports and Leisure 299
Radhika Malkar, Sneha Kagale, Sakshi Chavan, Manishkumar Tiwari and Pravin Patil
15.1 Introduction 299
15.1.1 Plastic Pollution Due to Leisure and Sports Industries 300
15.1.2 Bioplastics: Overview and Classification 301
15.1.2.1 Biobased Nonbiodegradable 302
15.1.2.2 Biobased, Biodegradable 303
15.1.2.3 Fossil-Based, Biodegradable 304
15.2 Bioplastic in Leisure 305
15.2.1 Camping 305
15.2.2 Eyewear 305
15.2.3 Toys 306
15.2.4 Electronic Equipment and Other 307
15.3 Bioplastic in Sports 307
15.3.1 Shoes and Sneakers 307
15.3.2 Ski Boots 308
15.3.3 Snow Goggles 309
15.3.4 Surfboards and Surfskates 309
15.3.5 Sportscar 309
15.3.6 Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer Ball, and Volleyball 310
15.3.7 Hockey 311
15.4 Conclusion 312
References 312
16 Biocomposites in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications 317
Ru Wei Teoh, Yin Yin Thoo and Adeline Su Yien Ting
16.1 Introduction 317
16.2 Advances in Biocomposite Application in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging 319
16.2.1 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties in Active Food Packaging 319
16.2.2 Gaseous Scavenging Activity in Active Food Packaging 320
16.2.3 Freshness and Food Quality Detection in Intelligent Food Packaging 321
16.3 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Compounds 322
16.3.1 Plant Extracts 323
16.3.2 Essential Oils 327
16.3.3 Enzymes and Bacteriocins 333
16.3.4 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated With Natural Compounds 333
16.4 Biocomposites Incorporated with Inorganic Materials 337
16.4.1 Metal Compounds 337
16.4.2 Clay and Silicate-Based Mineral Compounds 340
16.4.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Inorganic Materials 344
16.5 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments 344
16.5.1 Intelligent Food Packaging with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments 347
16.5.2 Potential of Natural Food Colorants and Pigments as Active and Intelligent Food Packaging 347
16.5.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments 348
16.6 Conclusion 348
References 349
17 Biofoams for Packaging Applications 361
Vinod V.T. Padil
17.1 Introduction 361
17.2 Biofoams from Botanical and Plant Sources 362
17.3 Starch and Their Blends 363
17.4 Cellulose-Based Biofoams for Packaging Application 365
17.5 Packaging Foams from Animal-Based Polysaccharides 365
17.6 Seaweed-Based Biofoams 366
17.7 Polylactic Acid 367
17.8 Tree Gum-Based Foams 368
17.9 Karaya Gum-Based Foams 369
17.10 Kondagogu Gum-Based Foams 370
17.11 Microbial Gum-Based Packaging Foams 371
17.12 Conclusion and Outlooks 375
References 375
18 Biobased and Biodegradable Packaging Plastics for Food Preservation 383
Carolina Caicedo, Alma Berenice Jasso-Salcedo, Lluvia de Abril Alexandra Soriano-Melgar, Claudio Alonso Díaz-Cruz, Enrique Javier Jiménez-Regalado and Rocio Yaneli Aguirre-Loredo
18.1 Introduction 383
18.2 Sources for Obtaining Polymers 384
18.2.1 Polymers Extracted from Natural Sources 384
18.2.2 Biopolymers Synthesized by Microorganisms 391
18.2.3 Biopolymers Obtained by Chemical Synthesis 394
18.3 Additives in Packaging Materials 395
18.3.1 Natural Origin 395
18.3.2 Synthetic Origin 398
18.4 Active Packaging 398
18.4.1 Antioxidants in Biobased Active Packaging 399
18.4.2 Active Packaging Biobased with Antimicrobial Agents 401
18.5 Smart Packaging 405
18.5.1 Indicators 405
18.5.2 Biosensors 405
18.6 Functional Properties of Biobased Packaging and Their Effect on Food Preservation 406
18.6.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties 406
18.6.2 Susceptibility to Moisture 407
18.6.3 Gas Barrier 408
18.7 Current State of the Biobased Packaging Market 410
18.8 Prospects for Food Packaging and the Use of Biobased Materials 412
References 412
19 Bioplastics-Based Nanocomposites for Packaging Applications 425
Xiaoying Zhao and Yael Vodovotz
19.1 Introduction 425
19.2 Bioplastic-Based Nanocomposites 428
19.2.1 PLA Bionanocomposites 428
19.2.2 PHA Bionanocomposites 430
19.2.3 Starch Bionanocomposites 432
19.2.4 PBS Bionanocomposites 434
19.3 Packaging Applications 436
19.4 Safety Issue and Regulations 437
19.5 Conclusions 438
References 439
20 Applications of Bioplastics in Disposable Products 445
Mahrukh Aslam, Habibullah Nadeem, Farrukh Azeem, Muhammad Zubair, Ijaz Rasul, Saima Muzammil, Muhammad Afzal and Muhammad Hussnain Siddique
20.1 Introduction 445
20.2 Plastics vs Bioplastics 446
20.2.1 Minimum Utilization of Energy 447
20.2.2 Reduction of Carbon Footprint 447
20.2.3 Environment Friendly 447
20.2.4 Littering Minimization 447
20.2.5 Not Usage of Crude Oil 447
20.3 Types of Bioplastics 447
20.3.1 Starch-Based 447
20.3.2 Cellulose-Based 448
20.3.3 Protein-Based 448
20.3.4 Bioderived Polyethylene 448
20.3.5 Aliphatic Polyesters 449
20.4 Applications of Bioplast 449
20.4.1 Medical Applications 449
20.4.2 Wound Dressing Application 449
20.4.3 Drug Delivery Application 450
20.4.4 Agricultural Applications 450
20.4.5 3D Printing 450
20.4.6 Applications in Packaging Industry 451
20.4.7 Bioremediation Applications 452
20.4.8 Biofuel Applications 452
20.5 Conclusion 453
References 453
21 Bioplastic-Based Nanocomposites for Smart Materials 457
Marya Raji, Abdellah Halloub, Abou el Kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid
21.1 Introduction 457
21.2 Biopolymer 458
21.2.1 Natural Polymers 458
21.2.2 Synthetic Polymers 460
21.3 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites 461
21.4 Bioplastics-Based Nanocomposites for Smart Materials 463
21.5 Physical Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymer 464
21.6 Chemical Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymers 464
21.7 Biological Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymers 465
21.8 Conclusion 466
References 467
Part III: Industrial Application, Sustainability and Recycling of Bioplastics 471
22 Applications of Biobased Composites in Optical Devices 473
Reshmy R., Vaisakh P.H., Eapen Philip, Parameswaran Binod, Aravind Madavan, Mukesh Kumar Awasthi, Ashok Pandey and Raveendran Sindhu
22.1 Introduction 473
22.2 Characteristics and Advantages of Biobased Composites in Optical Devices 475
22.3 Polysaccharide-Based Biocomposite 477
22.3.1 Cellulose 478
22.3.2 Chitin 480
22.3.3 Alginate 481
22.4 Protein-Based Biocomposite 481
22.4.1 Silk 482
22.4.2 Collagen 483
22.4.3 Gelatin 483
22.5 Polynucleotides and Carbonized-Based Biocomposite 484
22.5.1 DNA Origami 484
22.5.2 Carbon Nanomaterials 486
22.6 Future Trends and Perspective 487
22.7 Conclusion 487
References 488
23 Biocomposites and Bioplastics in Electrochemical Applications 491
Sema Aslan and Derya Bal Altuntaş
23.1 Introduction 491
23.2 Electrochemistry 492
23.2.1 General Aspects 492
23.3 Nanomaterials in Biocomposite Applications 492
23.4 Electrochemical Applications 493
23.4.1 Biosensors 493
23.4.2 Sensors 501
23.4.3 Corrosion 502
23.4.4 Energy Applications 503
23.5 Conclusion 506
References 507
24 Biofibers and Their Composites for Industrial Applications 513
Meshude Akbulut Söylemez, Kemal Özer and Demet Ozer
24.1 Introduction 513
24.2 Types of Biofibers 514
24.2.1 Seed Fibers 516
24.2.2 Leaf Fibers 518
24.2.3 Bast Fibers 519
24.2.4 Stalk Fibers 521
24.3 Chemical and Physical Modification of Biofibers as Reinforcing Materials for Biocomposites 521
24.3.1 Chemical Treatment Processes 522
24.3.1.1 Alkalization 522
24.3.1.2 Silanization 523
24.3.1.3 Acetylation 525
24.3.1.4 Benzoylation 527
24.3.2 Physical Treatment Processes 527
24.3.2.1 Plasma Treatment 527
24.3.2.2 Ultrasound Treatment 528
24.3.2.3 Ultraviolet Treatment 529
24.4 Biofiber Composites for Industrial Applications 529
24.5 Challenges and Perspectives for Future Research 532
24.6 Conclusion 533
References 534
25 Bioplastics and Biocomposites in Flame-Retardant Applications 539
L. Magunga, M. Mohapi, A. Kaleni, S. Magagula, M.J. Mochane and M.T. Motloung
25.1 Introduction 539
25.2 A Brief Introduction to Bioplastics and Biocomposites 541
25.3 Flame Retardants Used in Polymer Materials 545
25.4 Action Mechanisms of Flame Retardants 554
25.4.1 Char-Formation 556
25.4.2 Inet Gas 556
25.4.3 Contact of Chemicals 557
25.4.4 Restriction of Vapor Phase Burning 557
25.5 Compatibility of Flame Retardants With Polymer Matrices 557
25.6 Preparation of Flame-Retardant Biocomposites and Bioplastics 559
25.7 Applications of Flame-Retardant Bioplastics and Biocomposites 561
25.8 Conclusions 566
Acknowledgements 567
References 567
26 Biobased Thermosets for Engineering Applications 575
Bhargavi Koneru, Jhilmil Swapnalin, Hanumanthrayappa Manjunatha and Prasun Banerjee
26.1 Introduction 575
26.2 Sustainable Covalently Bonded Polyamides are Produced by Polycondensing a Naturally Present Functionalized Carboxyl Group (Citric Acid) with 1, 8-Octane Diol 576
26.3 Biodegradable Crosslinked Polyesters by Polycondensation of a Naturally Occurring Citric Acid and Glycerol 577
26.4 Sugar-Based Lactones to Produce Degradable Dimethacrylates 578
26.5 Water Facilitated, Naturally Produced Difunctional or Trifunctional Carboxyl Groups and Epoxidized Sucrose Soyate Are Made (With Sugars and Soybean Oil Lipids) 580
26.5.1 Learning More About the Significance of Water in the Curing Process 580
26.6 Isosorbide Was Employed as a Bridge in an Adhesive System After Being Introduced Into a Carbonyl Group 581
26.7 Thermoplastic Polymers Based on a Spiro Diacetyl Trigger Generated From Lignin 583
26.8 Properties of Epoxy Resin Thermosets With Acetal Addition 583
26.8.1 Mechanical Properties 583
26.8.2 Thermal Properties 583
26.9 Conclusions 584
Acknowledgements 584
References 584
27 Public Attitude Toward Recycling Routes of Bioplastics - Knowledge on Sustainable Purchase 589
Farhan Shaikh and Sunny Kumar
27.1 Introduction 589
27.2 Production of Plastics 590
27.3 Application of Bioplastics 591
27.4 Recycle Route of Bioplastics 592
27.5 Public Contribution of Recycling 592
27.6 Awareness of Sustainable Purchase 596
27.7 Conclusion 598
References 599
28 Applications of Bioplastic in Composting Bags and Planting Pots 605
Sonica Sondhi
28.1 Introduction 605
28.2 Biodegradable Pots (Biopots) 607
28.2.1 Plantable Pots 608
28.2.2 Composting Bags 608
28.3 Biodegradable Planting Pots 609
28.3.1 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based on Pressed Fibers 609
28.3.2 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based on Bioplastics 610
28.3.3 Biopots Based on Industry and Agriculture 611
28.4 Growth and Quality of Plants in Biopots 613
28.5 Future Trends and Challenges 614
28.6 Conclusion 614
References 615
29 Bioplastics, Biocomposites and Biobased Polymers - Applications and Innovative Approaches for Sustainability 619
V. P. Sharma, Anurag Singh, Neha Srivastava, Prachi Srivastava and Inamuddin
29.1 Introduction 620
29.2 Characteristics of Biobased Polymers 621
29.3 Biobased Polymers and Bioplastics Sustainability 621
29.4 Biodegradation and Standardization of Bioplastics and Biobased Polymers 622
29.4.1 Standard EN 13432 622
29.4.2 Standards for Oxodegradation 622
29.4.3 Australasian Bioplastics Association 623
29.4.4 Australian Packaging Covenant Organization 623
29.5 Application of Bioplastics, Biocomposites, and Biobased Polymers 623
29.5.1 Application in Medicine 623
29.5.2 Application in Packaging 624
29.5.3 Application in Agriculture 624
29.5.4 Other Applications 625
29.6 Conclusion 625
References 626
30 Recycling of Bioplastics: Mechanism and Economic Benefits 629
Nadia Akram, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Usman, Tanveer Hussain Bokhari, Akbar Ali and Zunaira Shafiq
30.1 Overview of Popular Bioplastics 629
30.1.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics 630
30.1.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastic 631
30.1.3 Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Based Bioplastics 631
30.1.4 Polyhydroxy Alkanoate-Based Bioplastics (PHA) 631
30.1.5 Organic Polyethylene 632
30.1.6 Protein-Based Bioplastics 632
30.1.7 Drop-In Bioplastics 632
30.1.8 Fossil Fuel-Based Bioplastics 632
30.2 Recycling of Bioplastics 633
30.2.1 Background of Bioplastics Recycling 633
30.2.2 Options of Recycling 634
30.2.3 Generation of Energy From Recycling Process 634
30.3 Types of Recycling 636
30.3.1 Mechanical Recycling 636
30.3.1.1 Method of Mechanical Recycling 636
30.3.1.2 Mechanical Recycling Mechanism 636
30.3.1.3 Mechanical Recycling in Landscape 637
30.3.1.4 Sorting 637
30.3.2 Chemical Recycling 638
30.3.2.1 Solvent Purification 638
30.3.2.2 Chemical Depolymerization 638
30.3.2.3 Thermal Depolymerization 639
30.3.2.4 Benefits of Chemical Recycling 639
30.3.3 Textile Fibers Recycling Through MR or CR 639
30.3.4 Recycled Polyester From Plastic Bottles 639
30.3.5 Significance of Recycling 640
30.3.5.1 Significance of MR 640
30.3.5.2 Significance of CR 641
30.4 Economic Aspects of Bioplastic Recycling Industry 641
30.4.1 New Market and Economic Benefits 642
30.4.2 Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics for Economy 643
30.4.2.1 Usage of Specific Disposal Procedure 643
30.4.2.2 Metallic Contamination 643
30.4.2.3 Environmental Cooperation for Disposal 644
30.4.2.4 High Capital Cost 644
30.4.2.5 Usage of Cropland to Produce Items 644
30.4.2.6 Marine Pollution Problems 644
30.4.2.7 Guarantee of Net Savings 644
30.5 Conclusion 645
References 645
Index 649
