A Comprehensive Resource Covering All Aspects of Karst Hydrogeology, Geomorphology, and Caves
This essential book covers all physical, chemical, and geological aspects of karst science. It reviews current knowledge on hydrogeology, geomorphology and caves in karst, based on the vast existing literature and investigations carried out by the authors worldwide. The different topics are profusely illustrated with color figures and images from all continents and climates, showing the scientific and aesthetic appeal of karst environments.
The book covers in a systematic way the significant features of karst rocks, the chemistry and kinetics of their dissolution, the rate and distribution of karst denudation, the unique hydrogeology of karst terrains, the landforms endemic to karst, the morphology of caves and their diverse sedimentary records, and the multiple processes that lead to the formation of underground voids. Overall, the work reflects the increasing recognition of karst as a fundamental part of the Earth’s dynamic systems, and helps readers understand this multidisciplinary field from a holistic and nuts-and-bolts perspective. Some of the ideas discussed within the book include: - How karst is gaining importance for human development, because of its valuable resources (groundwater) and associated environmental problems (impacts and hazards) - The enormous technological developments achieved in recent years - Recent major breakthroughs in the field and their influence on other scientific disciplines - The central role played by karst science for understanding and mitigating global environmental issues (global warming, depletion of resources, human-induced hazards)
For all scientists working in karst, and for students and lecturers of karst-related programs, this book serves as a valuable all-in-one source. It is also a valuable resource for professional hydrogeologists, the petroleum industry, environmental geologists, and of course speleologists, the last true geographic explorers in the world.
Table of Contents
Preface xiv
1 Introduction to Karst 1
1.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin 1
1.2 Classification of Karst 2
1.3 Global Distribution of Karst 8
1.4 Karst Terminology 12
2 Karst Rocks 15
2.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications 15
2.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 17
2.2.1 Carbonate Minerals 20
2.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones 23
2.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes 28
2.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 30
2.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis 32
2.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization 35
2.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates 39
2.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks 44
2.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks 46
2.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones 46
2.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias 47
2.2.9.3 Marbles 50
2.2.9.4 Carbonatites 51
2.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals 52
2.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite 56
2.3.2 Halite 62
2.3.3 Other Salts 65
2.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 67
3 Dissolution of Karst Rocks 76
3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters 80
3.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent 80
3.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters 82
3.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 86
3.2.4 Activity 88
3.2.5 Saturation Index 89
3.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters 90
3.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 91
3.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 92
3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils 94
3.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System 97
3.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite 99
3.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals 101
3.3.6 Open and Closed CO 2 - Dissolution Systems 102
3.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid 105
3.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite 111
3.6 The Dissolution of Silica 115
3.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State 117
3.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes 118
3.7.2 Common-Ion Effect 122
3.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect 123
3.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect 123
3.7.5 Water Mixing 124
3.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids 127
3.7.7 Acid Rain 127
3.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals 130
3.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite 133
3.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite 141
3.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development 143
3.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity 143
3.9.2 Grain Size and Texture 147
3.9.3 Porosity 148
3.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts 150
3.9.5 Joints 153
3.9.6 Faults 159
3.9.7 Folds 163
3.9.8 Interbedded Non- soluble Rocks 167
3.10 Biokarst Processes 169
3.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment 170
3.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves 173
4 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution 195
4.1 Basic Concepts 195
4.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate 198
4.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience 203
4.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements 203
4.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets 208
4.3.3 Micro- erosion Meter 210
4.3.4 High- Resolution 3d Surface Models 211
4.3.5 Long- term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules 213
4.3.6 Long- term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine- 36 in Calcite 217
4.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt 219
4.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 228
4.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates 233
4.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition 235
4.6.2 Long- term Rates of Base- Level Lowering and Downcutting 242
5 Karst Hydrogeology 260
5.1 Introduction 260
5.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (< 1900) 260
5.3 Definitions 262
5.4 Groundwater Flow Fundamentals 267
5.4.1 Laminar Flow Through Granular Media 267
5.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through Conduits 269
5.4.3 Flow Through Fractured Media 271
5.5 Groundwater Flow in Karst Aquifers 271
5.5.1 The Hydrological and Geological Water Cycle 272
5.5.2 The Energy and Forces Involved in Groundwater Flow in Karst 275
5.5.3 Inputs 276
5.5.4 Outputs 279
5.5.5 Throughput 280
5.5.6 Lithological and Structural Control on Groundwater Flow 283
5.5.7 Karst Groundwater Basins 287
5.5.8 Hydrological Role of the Epikarst and the Transmission Zone 287
5.5.9 The Water Table in Karst 289
5.5.10 Freshwater-Saltwater Interface 291
5.6 Analysis of Karst Groundwater Basins 292
5.6.1 Defining Karst Aquifers 292
5.6.2 Complementary Approaches in Karst Aquifer Studies 293
5.6.3 Groundwater Basin Definition and Water Balance 295
5.6.4 Precipitation and Recharge 296
5.6.5 Flow Measurements 296
5.6.6 Boreholes 299
5.6.7 Spring Hydrographs and Chemographs 304
5.6.8 Water Tracing 311
5.6.9 Isotopes 319
5.6.10 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Techniques 322
5.6.11 Karst Aquifer Modeling 325
6 Karren and Sinkholes 336
6.1 Karst. A Special Geomorphic System 336
6.2 Karren 337
6.2.1 Bare Karren 341
6.2.2 Covered Karren 358
6.2.3 Bare and Covered Structural Karren 361
6.2.4 Coastal Karren 368
6.3 Sinkholes (Dolines) 374
6.3.1 General Aspects and Classification 374
6.3.2 Solution Sinkholes and Polygonal Karst 380
6.3.3 Collapse Sinkholes 387
6.3.4 Suffosion Sinkholes 400
6.3.5 Sagging Sinkholes 402
6.3.6 Factors that Control Subsidence Sinkholes and Human-Induced Sinkholes 407
6.3.7 Sinkhole Mapping 416
6.3.8 Sinkhole Morphometry and Spatial Distribution 424
7 Other Karst Landforms 466
7.1 Poljes 466
7.1.1 General Aspects and Distribution 466
7.1.2 Geomorphological, Hydrological and Geological Features of Poljes 468
7.1.3 Origin and Classification 475
7.2 Corrosion Plains, Rejuvenation, and Submergence 477
7.3 Residual Hills. Fenglin and Fengcong 484
7.4 Valleys in Karst 489
7.4.1 Through Valleys 490
7.4.2 Blind Valleys 493
7.4.3 Pocket Valleys 495
7.4.4 Cave- Collapse Valleys 495
7.4.5 Dry Valleys 497
7.5 Constructional Features. Calcareous Tufas and Travertines 498
8 Special Features Associated with Evaporites 517
8.1 Interstratal Evaporite Karst 519
8.2 Covered Evaporite Karst 538
8.3 Bare Evaporite Karst 541
8.4 Salt Tectonics and Karst in Salt Extrusions 546
8.4.1 The Special Rheology of Rock Salt. An Exceptional Mobile Bedrock 546
8.4.2 Salt Structures and the Geomorphic Impact of Salt Flow 548
8.4.3 The Morphological Evolution of Salt Extrusions and the Role of Dissolution 551
9 Cave Geomorphology 574
9.1 Introduction 574
9.1.1 Definition of Cave 574
9.1.2 Cave- Forming Processes 575
9.1.3 Cave Classifications 577
9.1.3.1 Solution Caves 577
9.1.3.2 Caves Related to Mechanical Movement and Accumulation 588
9.1.3.3 Caves Related to Mechanical Weathering and Erosion 589
9.1.3.4 Depositional Caves 594
9.1.3.5 Caves Related to Melting 595
9.1.3.6 Caves Related to Solidification 596
9.2 Macromorphology 598
9.2.1 Cave Surveying 599
9.2.2 Cave Entrances 600
9.2.3 Cave Passages 603
9.2.3.1 Shafts 604
9.2.3.2 Canyons 607
9.2.3.3 Tubes 609
9.2.3.4 Fissures 610
9.2.3.5 Mixed Phreatic- Vadose Forms 611
9.2.3.6 Phantom (Ghost- Rock) Passages 611
9.2.4 Cave Rooms 613
9.2.5 Cave and Passage Terminations 614
9.2.6 Cave Ground Plans 615
9.2.7 Cave Profile and Cave Storeys 618
9.3 Speleogens: Small- Scale Passage Morphologies 621
10 Cave Deposits 654
10.1 Introduction 654
10.2 Classification of Cave Sediments 655
10.3 Clastic Sediments 657
10.3.1 The Cave Sedimentary System 657
10.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves 657
10.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport 659
10.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies 661
10.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments 664
10.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments 666
10.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments 667
10.3.8 Anthropic Waste 671
10.3.9 Sedimentary Structures 672
10.4 Organic Sediments 675
10.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris 676
10.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments 678
10.5 Transported Chemical Deposits 679
10.6 Chemical Deposits 679
10.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves 680
10.6.2 Carbonates 683
10.6.3 Other Cave Minerals 687
10.6.3.1 Halides 690
10.6.3.2 Sulfates 690
10.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates 693
10.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides 694
10.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates 696
10.6.4 Secondary Ice 696
10.7 Speleothems 698
10.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water 702
10.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies 712
10.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies 718
10.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation 718
10.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water 725
10.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms 728
10.7.7 The Color of Speleothems 731
10.7.8 Speleothem Growth Rate 732
10.7.9 Decay of Speleothems 733
10.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments 736
10.7.10.1 Radiocarbon 736
10.7.10.2 Uranium-Thorium 738
10.7.10.3 Uranium- Lead and Other Methods 740
10.7.10.4 Aluminum-Beryllium 741
10.7.10.5 Potassium-Argon 742
10.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence 742
10.7.10.7 Amino Acid Racemization 743
10.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism 743
10.7.10.9 Lamina Counting- Fluorescence- Trace Elements 744
10.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo- Environmental Archives 745
11 Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form 762
11.1 The Growth of Ideas about Cave Genesis 762
11.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks 765
11.2.1 Influence of Lithology 765
11.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity 765
11.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture 766
11.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity 766
11.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks 766
11.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures 768
11.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes 769
11.2.3.2 Influence of Joints 771
11.2.3.3 Influence of Faults 771
11.2.3.4 Influence of Folds 772
11.2.3.5 Inception Horizons 772
11.2.4 Topography, Base- Level and Climate 773
11.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development 775
11.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input 776
11.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure 777
11.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs 779
11.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two- and Three- Dimensional Fissure Networks 782
11.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis 784
11.4.1 Multiple- Point Recharge 785
11.4.2 Concentrated Recharge 786
11.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above 792
11.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below 794
11.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids 797
11.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids 805
11.4.7 Coastal Mixing 814
11.5 Caves in Non- Carbonate Rocks 823
11.5.1 Halite Caves 823
11.5.2 Gypsum-Anhydrite Caves 824
11.5.3 Quartzite Caves 830
11.5.4 Iron Formation Caves 832
11.6 Condensation-Corrosion 834
11.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves 839
11.7.1 Initiation of a Cave 839
11.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement 840
11.7.3 Cave Maturation 841
11.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay 842
Index 857
