This book provides up-to-date information on wastewater contaminants, aimed at researchers, engineers and technologists working in this field. Conventional physicochemical techniques used to remove contaminants from wastewater include ion exchange, precipitation, degradation, coagulation, coating, membrane processes and adsorption. However, these applications have technological and economic limitations, and involve the release of large amounts of chemical reagents and by-products that are themselves difficult to remove. Biosorption - the use of organically generated material as an adsorbent - is attracting new research and scholarship. Thermally-treated calcined biomaterials may be treated to remove heavy metals from wastewater. To ensure the elimination of these contaminants, existing solutions must be integrated with intelligent biosorption functions.
Biosorption for Wastewater Contaminants will find an appreciative audience among academics and postgraduates working in the fields of environmental biotechnology, environmental engineering, wastewater treatment technology and environmental chemistry.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xii
Preface xvi
Foreword xvii
1 Industrial Wastewater Contaminants and Their Hazardous Impacts 1
Camila Pesci Pereira, João Pedro Neves Goldenstein, and João Paulo Bassin
List of Abbreviations 1
Introduction 2
Toxic Heavy Metals 3
Dyes 5
Oil and Grease 8
Biocides 10
Organic Compounds 12
Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) 15
Conclusion 17
References 19
2 Biosorption and Different Native Sources for Preparation of Biosorbents 23
A.B. Sathya, R. Sivashankar, J. Kanimozhi, R. Devika, and R. Balaji
Introduction 23
Biosorption and Its Mechanism 24
Biosorbents 24
Types of Biosorbents 25
Microbial Biomass as Biosorbents 26
Bacterial Biomass 26
Algae as Biosorbents 27
Fungi as Biosorbents 30
Yeasts as Biosorbents 30
Biosorbents Derived from Plant and Animal Waste 31
Biocomposites 33
Alteration of Biosorbents 33
Desorption and Regeneration 34
Cost Evaluation 34
Conclusion 35
References 35
3 Biosorption for Eliminating Inorganic Contaminants (IOCs) from Wastewater 42
Rahul Sharma, Pinki Rani Agrawal, Ravi Kumar, Ittishree, and Gaurav Gupta
Introduction: Water Pollution by Inorganic Contaminants (IOCs) 42
Permissible Limits and Sources of IOCs in Water Systems 45
Standard Permissible Limits of Some IOCs in Water 45
Sources of IOCs in Water Systems 46
Natural Sources 46
Anthropogenic Sources 46
IOCs in Water: Environmental and Health Hazards 47
Elimination of IOCs from Wastewater: Recent Strategies and Remediation Techniques 49
Oxidation/Precipitation 50
Ion Exchange 50
Electrokinetics (EK) 50
Membrane Filtration / Reverse Osmosis 50
Sorption Methods 51
Biosorption Methods for Eliminating IOCs from Wastewater 51
Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 54
References 56
4 Biosorption for Eliminating Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 63
Pinki Rani Agrawal, Rahul Sharma, and Abhishek Agrawal
Introduction 63
Types of Organic Pollutants and Their Effects on Human Health 64
Organic Dyes 64
Pharmaceutical Waste 66
Agricultural Waste 67
Remediation Methods for Eliminating Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 67
Biosorption as a Remediation Method for Organic Pollutants 67
Mechanism of Biosorption for Adsorption of Organic Pollutants 70
Conclusion and Future Prospects 72
References 73
5 Recent Approaches in the Preparation of Various Biosorbents 79
Rajarathinam Nithya and Arunachalam Thirunavukkarasu
Introduction 79
Biosorbents 81
Physical Treatment of Biosorbents 82
Sterilization 82
Comminution 82
Cryodessication 83
Microwave Drying 83
Chemical Treatment of Biosorbents 83
Acid Treatment 83
Alkali Treatment 84
Pyrolysis 84
Solid-Liquid Extraction 85
Immobilization 85
Chemical and Genetic Modifications 86
Challenges in the Utilization of Biosorbents 86
Conclusion 92
References 93
6 Characterization of the Biosorption Process 102
R. Sivashankar, A.B. Sathya, J. Kanimozhi, and B. Deepanraj
Introduction 102
Biosorption 103
Characterization Methods 104
Titration Technique 104
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 105
Scanning Electron Microscopy with an Energy Dispersive X-ray Analytical System 107
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Analysis 109
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 110
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller Analyzer 111
Thermal Stability Analyzer 113
Conclusion 114
References 115
7 Isotherm and Kinetic Modeling Analysis of Water Decontamination through Biosorption 117
Subramanyam Busetty, Ramprasad Chandrasekaran, and Srihari Vedartham
Adsorption Equilibrium Analysis 117
Basics of Adsorption Equilibrium 117
Models of Adsorption Equilibrium 117
Two-Parameter Model 121
Langmuir Isotherm Model (Langmuir, 1918) 121
Freundlich Isotherm Model 122
Three-Parameter Models 124
Four-Parameter Models 126
Five-Parameter Model 126
Adsorption Kinetics 126
Pseudo-First-Order Kinetics 135
Pseudo-Second-Order Kinetics 136
The Elovich Equation 136
Avrami Kinetic Equation 137
Sorption Diffusion Models 137
Calculating the External Mass Transfer Coefficient 138
Intra-Particle Diffusion Control 139
Power Function Equation 140
Bangham’s Equation 140
Boyd Model 141
References 141
8 Dynamic Biosorption for Removal of Wastewater Contaminants 147
Arunachalam Thirunavukkarasu and Rajarathinam Nithya
Introduction 147
Fundamentals of Biosorption 148
Biosorbates 148
Metals 148
Organic Compounds 148
Biosorbents 149
Factors Affecting Biosorption 149
Operational Modes of Biosorption 150
Batch Biosorption 151
Dynamic Biosorption 152
Models of Dynamic Biosorption 154
Challenges in Dynamic Biosorption 159
Conclusion 161
References 162
9 Applications of Electrospun Membranes Immobilized with Biosorbents for the Removal of Contaminants 167
Noel Jacob Kaleekkal, Maheswari Purushothaman, and G Nandu
Introduction 167
Biosorption and Nanofibers 168
Electrospinning 169
Factors Influencing Electrospun Fibers 170
Advantage of Electrospinning 170
Electrospun Biosorbent Membranes 172
Immobilized Membranes for Heavy Metal Removal 173
Immobilized Membranes for Dye Removal 176
Immobilized Membranes for Removal of Organic Contaminants 176
Conclusion 178
References 178
10 Biosorption of Precious Metals from Wastewater 185
Amit Kumar Tiwari, Jay Mant Jha, and Dan Bahadur Pal
Introduction 185
Outline of Treatment Methods 188
Biosorbents 188
Biosorbents of Gold 188
Biosorbents of Silver 189
Biosorbents of PGMs (Palladium and Platinum) 190
Factors Affecting Biosorption 191
pH of the mixture 191
Operational Temperatures 191
Dosage of Biomass 192
Ionic Potency 192
Initial Concentration of the Solute 193
Rate and Period of Agitation 193
Biosorption Equilibrium Models 193
Desorption and Recovery 194
Continuous Biosorption 194
Utilization of Industrial Discharge/Wastes for Biosorption 195
Conclusions 195
References 195
11 Biosorption as a Strategy for the Recovery of Rare Earth Elements 201
João Pedro Neves Goldeinstein and João Paulo Bassin
Rare Earth Elements (REEs) 201
Methods to Recover Rare Earth Elements 204
Solvent Extraction 204
Ion Exchange 205
Adsorption 205
Chemical Precipitation 206
Biosorption 206
Biosorption Approach for Recovering Rare Earth Elements 208
Final Considerations 211
References 211
12 Deployment of Used Biosorbents in Environmental Remediation: Prospects and Challenges 213
Shashikant Shivaji Vhatkar, Guru Charan Sahu, and Ramesh Oraon
Introduction 213
Mechanism Studies 214
Adsorption 214
Ion-Exchange Resin 214
Complexation 215
Microprecipitation 215
Pyrometallurgical Processes 215
Hydrometallurgical Processes 216
Biosorption 216
Bioaccumulation and Principles 216
Biotransformation 218
Bioleaching 218
Recovery of Metals through Used Biosorbents 218
Recovery of a Single Metal with Used Biosorbents 218
Vanadium (V) 219
Chromium (Cr) 219
Nickel (Ni) 220
Copper (Cu) 220
Zinc (Zn) 221
Zirconium (Zr) 221
Ruthenium (Ru) 221
Palladium (Pd) 222
Cadmium (Cd) 222
Lanthanum (La) 223
Neodymium (Nd) 223
Rhenium (Re) 224
Platinum (Pt) 224
Gold (Au) 224
Lead (Pb) 225
Advances in Multi-Metal Recovery with Used Biosorbents 225
Adsorption Kinetics 229
Current Challenges 230
Conclusion 231
Summary 232
References 232
13 Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Aqueous Media Using Eco-Friendly and Cost-Effective Biological Methods 246
Veer Singh, Nidhi Singh, Priyanka Yadav, and Vishal Mishra
Introduction 246
Sources of Hexavalent Chromium 247
Toxicity of Hexavalent Chromium 247
Removal of Hexavalent Chromium Ions 248
Biosorption 250
Bioaccumulation 252
Biological Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium 255
Adsorption Kinetic Studies 259
Pseudo-First-Order Kinetics 259
Pseudo-Second-Order Kinetics 259
Adsorption Isotherm Studies 260
Langmuir Isotherm 260
Freundlich Isotherm 260
Temkin Isotherm 260
D-R Isotherm 261
Thermodynamics Studies 261
Conclusion 262
Acknowledgments 262
References 262
14 Biosorption of Arsenic from Wastewater 269
Bidhan Chandra Ruidas and Dan Bahadur Pal
Introduction 269
Sources of Arsenic in Groundwater Pollution 270
Effect of Arsenic on the Environment and Human Health 270
Methods for Removing Arsenic from Wastewater 271
Oxidation 271
Coagulation and Flocculation 271
Adsorption 272
Membrane Filtration 272
Biosorption 272
Principles of Biosorption 273
Biosorption Sites 273
Biosorption Mechanisms 274
Complexation 274
Chelation 274
Ion Exchange 274
Precipitation 275
Biosorption Isotherms 275
Biosorption Kinetics Model Analysis 276
Biosorption of Arsenic from Wastewater 277
Summary 278
Acknowledgments 278
References 278
Index 285
