Explore this comprehensive reference on the remediation of contaminated substrates, filled with cutting-edge research and practical case studies
Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability delivers a thorough review of electrokinetic remediation (EKR) for the treatment of inorganic and organic contaminants in contaminated substrates. The book highlights recent progress and developments in EKR in the areas of resource recovery, the removal of pollutants, and environmental remediation. It also discusses the use of EKR in conjunction with nanotechnology and phytoremediation.
Throughout the book, case studies are presented that involve the field implementation of EKR technologies. The book also includes discussions of enhanced electrokinetic remediation of dredged co-contaminated sediments, solar-powered bioelectrokinetics for the mitigation of contaminated agricultural soil, advanced electro-fenton for remediation of organics, electrokinetic remediation for PPCPs in contaminated substrates, and the electrokinetic remediation of agrochemicals such as organochlorine compounds. Other topics include:- A thorough introduction to the modelling of electrokinetic remediation- An exploration of the electrokinetic recovery of tungsten and removal of arsenic from mining secondary resources- An analysis of pharmaceutically active compounds in wastewater treatment plants with a discussion of electrochemical advanced oxidation as an on-site treatment- A review of rare earth elements, including general concepts and recovery techniques, like electrodialytic extraction- A treatment of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil in cold climate conditions
Perfect for environmental engineers and scientists, geologists, chemical engineers, biochemical engineers, and scientists working with green technology, Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability will also earn a place in the libraries of academic and industry researchers, engineers, regulators, and policy makers with an interest in the remediation of contaminated natural resources.
Table of Contents
Preface xix
Contributors xxiii
1 An Overview of the Modeling of Electrokinetic Remediation 1
Maria Villen-Guzman, Maria del Mar Cerrillo-Gonzalez, Juan Manuel Paz-Garcia, and Jose Miguel Rodriguez-Maroto
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Reactive Transport 3
1.2.1 One-Dimensional Electromigration Model 3
1.2.2 One-Dimensional Electromigration and Electroosmosis Model 7
1.2.3 One-Dimensional Electrodialytic Model 9
1.2.4 One-Dimensional Electroremediation Model Using Nernst-Planck-Poisson 16
1.3 Chemical Equilibrium 18
1.4 Models for the Future 24
1.4.1 Combining Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Reaction Kinetics 24
1.4.2 Multiscale Models 26
1.4.3 Two- and Three-Dimensional Models 29
1.4.4 Multiphysics Modeling 29
Acknowledgments 30
References 30
2 Basic Electrochemistry Tools in Environmental Applications 35
Chanchal Kumar Mitra and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
2.1 Introduction 35
2.1.1 Electrochemical Half-Cells 37
2.1.2 Electrode Potential 38
2.1.3 Electrical Double Layer 40
2.1.4 Electrochemical Processes 41
2.1.4.1 Polarization (Overvoltage) 41
2.1.4.2 Slow Chemical Reactions 42
2.2 Basic Bioelectrochemistry and Applications 44
2.3 Industrial Electrochemistry and the Environment 44
2.3.1 Isolation and Purification of Important Metals 44
2.3.2 Production of Important Chemical Intermediates by Electrochemistry 45
2.4 Electrokinetic Phenomena 45
2.4.1 Electroosmosis in Bioremediation 46
2.5 Electrophoresis and Its Application in Bioremediation 47
2.6 Biosensors in Environmental Monitoring 48
2.6.1 What Are Biosensors? 48
2.6.2 Biosensors as Environmental Monitors 49
2.7 Electrochemical Systems as Energy Sources 52
2.8 Conclusions 55
References 55
3 Combined Use of Remediation Technologies with Electrokinetics 61
Helena I. Gomes and Erika B. Bustos
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Biological Processes 62
3.2.1 Electrobioremediation 62
3.2.2 Electro-Phytoremediation 64
3.3 Permeable Reactive Barriers 67
3.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 67
3.4.1 Electrokinetics-Enhanced In Situ Chemical Oxidation (EK-ISCO) 67
3.4.2 Electro-Fenton 70
3.5 In Situ Chemical Reduction (ISCR) 71
3.6 Challenges for Upscaling 71
3.7 Concluding Remarks 73
References 73
4 The Electrokinetic Recovery of Tungsten and Removal of Arsenic from Mining Secondary Resources: The Case of the Panasqueira Mine 85
Joana Almeida, Paulina Faria, António Santos Silva, Eduardo P. Mateus, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Tungsten Mining Resources: The Panasqueira Mine 86
4.2.1 The Development of the Industry 86
4.2.2 Ore Extraction Processes 88
4.2.3 Potential Risks 88
4.3 The Circular Economy of Tungsten Mining Waste 89
4.3.1 Panasqueira Old Slimes vs. Current Slimes 89
4.3.2 Tungsten Recovery 90
4.3.3 Building Material-Related Applications 92
4.4 Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts 93
4.5 Final Remarks 94
Acknowledgments 94
References 95
5 Electrokinetic Remediation of Dredged Contaminated Sediments 99
Kristine B. Pedersen, Ahmed Benamar, Mohamed T. Ammami, Florence Portet-Koltalo, and Gunvor M. Kirkelund
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 EKR Removal of Pollutants from Harbor Sediments 101
5.2.1 Pollutants and Removal Efficiencies 101
5.2.1.1 Metals 102
5.2.1.2 Organic Pollutants and Organometallic Pollutants 104
5.2.2 Influence of Experimental Settings and Sediment Properties on the Efficiency of EKR 105
5.2.2.1 Enhancement of EKR - Changes in Design 106
5.2.2.2 Enhancement of EKR - Chemical Agents and Surfactants 106
5.2.2.3 Sediment Characteristics 108
5.3 Case Studies of Enhancement Techniques 111
5.4 Evaluation of the Best Available EKR Practice 120
5.4.1 Energy Consumption 120
5.4.2 Environmental Impacts 122
5.5 Scaling Up EKR for Remediation of Polluted Harbor Sediments 123
5.5.1 Results and Comments 125
5.6 Future Perspectives 129
References 131
6 Pharmaceutically Active Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation as Onsite Treatment 141
Ana Rita Ferreira, Paula Guedes, Eduardo P. Mateus, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Nazaré Couto
6.1 Introduction 141
6.1.1 Emerging Organic Contaminants 141
6.1.2 Occurrence and Fate of EOCs 141
6.1.2.1 EOCs in WWTPs 143
6.1.3 Water Challenges 144
6.1.4 Technologies forWastewater Treatment - Electrochemical Process 146
6.2 Electrochemical Reactor for EOC Removal in WWTPs 148
6.2.1 Experimental Design 148
6.2.1.1 Analytical Methodology 148
6.2.2 Electrokinetic Reactor Operating in a Continuous Vertical Flow Mode 150
6.3 Conclusions 153
Acknowledgments 153
References 153
7 Rare Earth Elements: Overview, General Concepts, and Recovery Techniques, Including Electrodialytic Extraction 159
Nazaré Couto, Ana Rita Ferreira, Vanda Lopes, Stephen Peters, Sibel Pamukcu, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro
7.1 Introduction 159
7.1.1 Rare Earth Elements: Characterization, Applications, and Geo-Dependence 159
7.1.2 REE Mining and Secondary Sources 162
7.1.3 REE Extraction and Recovery from Secondary Resources 163
7.2 Case Study 164
7.3 Conclusions 166
Acknowledgments 167
References 167
8 Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Soil in Cold Climate Conditions: Electrokinetic-Bioremediation Technology as a Remediation Strategy 173
Ana Rita Ferreira, Paula Guedes, Eduardo P. Mateus, Pernille Erland Jensen, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Nazaré Couto
8.1 Introduction 173
8.1.1 Hydrocarbon Contamination 173
8.1.2 Oil Spills in Arctic Environments 174
8.1.3 Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soil 175
8.1.3.1 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) 176
8.2 Case Study 177
8.2.1 Description of the Site 177
8.2.2 Soil Sampling 178
8.2.3 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) Experiments 178
8.2.4 Analytical Procedures 179
8.2.4.1 Soil Characterization 179
8.3 Determination of Metals and Phosphorus 180
8.3.1 Results and Discussion 180
8.3.1.1 Soil Characteristics 180
8.3.1.2 EKR Experiments 182
8.4 Conclusions 186
Acknowledgments 186
References 186
9 Electrochemical Migration of Oil and Oil Products in Soil 191
V.A. Korolev and D.S. Nesterov
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Specific Nature of Soils Polluted by Oil and Its Products 192
9.3 Influence of Mineral Composition 193
9.4 Influence of Soil Dispersiveness 195
9.5 Influence of Physical Soil Properties 198
9.6 Influence of Physico-Chemical Soil Properties 201
9.7 Influence of the InitialWater/Oil Ratio in a Soil 203
9.8 Influence of the Oil Aging Process 207
9.9 Influence of Oil Composition 211
9.10 Conclusions 220
Acknowledgments 222
References 222
10 Nanostructured TiO2-Based Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) Electrocatalysts: A Preliminary Feasibility Study in Electrodialytic Remediation with Hydrogen Recovery 227
Antonio Rubino, Joana Almeida, Catia Magro, Pier G. Schiavi, Paula Guedes, Nazare Couto, Eduardo P. Mateus, Pietro Altimari, Maria L. Astolfi, Robertino Zanoni, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Francesca Pagnanelli
10.1 Introduction 227
10.1.1 Electrokinetic Technologies: Electrodialytic Ex Situ Remediation 228
10.1.2 Nanostructured TiO2 Electrocatalysts Synthesized Through Electrochemical Methods 230
10.2 Case Study 231
10.2.1 Aim and Scope 231
10.2.2 Experimental 232
10.2.2.1 TiO2 Based Electrocatalyst Synthesis and Characterization 232
10.2.2.2 ED Experiments 233
10.2.3 Discussion 235
10.2.3.1 Blank Tests: Electrocatalysts Effectiveness toward HER 235
10.2.3.2 ED Remediation for Sustainable CRMs Recovery 237
10.3 Final Considerations 243
Acknowledgments 244
References 244
11 Hydrogen Recovery in Electrodialytic-Based Technologies Applied to Environmental Contaminated Matrices 251
Cátia Magro, Joana Almeida, Juan Manuel Paz-Garcia, Eduardo P. Mateus, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro
11.1 Scope 251
11.2 Technology Concept 253
11.2.1 Potential Secondary Resources 253
11.2.2 Electrodialytic Reactor 254
11.2.2.1 Electrodes 254
11.2.2.2 Ion-Exchange Membranes 256
11.2.2.3 PEMFC System 258
11.3 Economic Assessment of PEMFC Coupled with Electroremediation 260
11.3.1 Scenario Analysis 260
11.3.2 Hydrogen Business Model Canvas 262
11.3.3 SWOT Analysis 264
11.4 Final Remarks 265
Acknowledgments 266
References 266
12 Electrokinetic-Phytoremediation of Mixed Contaminants in Soil 271
Joana Dionísio, Nazaré Couto, Paula Guedes, Cristiana Gonçalves, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro
12.1 Soil Contamination 271
12.2 Phytoremediation 272
12.3 Electroremediation 274
12.3.1 EK Process Coupled with Phytoremediation 275
12.3.2 EK-Assisted Bioremediation in the Treatment of Inorganic Contaminants 277
12.3.3 EK-Assisted Bioremediation in the Treatment of Organic Contaminants 278
12.4 Case Study of EK and Electrokinetic-Assisted Phytoremediation 279
12.5 Conclusions 281
Acknowledgments 282
References 282
13 Enhanced Electrokinetic Techniques in Soil Remediation for Removal of Heavy Metals 287
Sadia Ilyas, Rajiv Ranjan Srivastava, Hyunjung Kim, and Humma Akram Cheema
13.1 Introduction 287
13.2 Electrokinetic Mechanism and Phenomenon 288
13.3 Limitations of the Electrokinetic Remediation Process 289
13.4 Need for Enhancement in the Electrokinetic Remediation Process 290
13.5 Enhancement Techniques 292
13.5.1 Surface Modification 292
13.6 Cation-Selective Membranes 293
13.7 Electro-Bioremediation 294
13.8 Electro-Geochemical Oxidation 295
13.9 LasagnaTM Process 296
13.10 Other Potential Processes 296
13.11 Summary 298
Acknowledgments 299
References 299
14 Assessment of Soil Fertility and Microbial Activity by Direct Impact of an Electrokinetic Process on Chromium-Contaminated Soil 303
Prasun Kumar Chakraborty, Prem Prakash, and Brijesh Kumar Mishra
14.1 Introduction 303
14.2 Experimental Section 304
14.2.1 Soil Characteristics and Preparation of Contaminated Soil 304
14.2.2 Electrokinetic Tests, Experimental Setup, and Procedure 305
14.2.3 Testing Procedure 306
14.2.4 Extraction and Analytical Methods 306
14.2.5 Soil Nutrients 306
14.2.6 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon Analysis 307
14.2.7 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 307
14.3 Results and Discussion 308
14.3.1 Electrokinetic Remediation of Chromium-Contaminated Soil 308
14.3.1.1 Electrical Current Changes During the Electrokinetic Experiment 308
14.3.2 pH Distribution in Soil During and After the Electrokinetic Experiment 309
14.4 Removal of Cr 310
14.4.1 The Distribution of Total Cr and Its Electroosmotic Flow During the Electrokinetic Experiment 310
14.5 Effects of the Electrokinetic Process on Some Soil Properties 312
14.5.1 Soil Organic Carbon 312
14.5.2 Soil-Available Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Calcium 314
14.5.3 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon 318
14.6 Conclusion 318
References 319
15 Management of Clay Properties Based on Electrokinetic Nanotechnology 323
D.S. Nesterov and V.A. Korolev
15.1 Introduction 323
15.2 Objects of the Study 326
15.3 Methods of the Study 328
15.4 Results and Discussion 330
15.4.1 Regulation of Soil rN 330
15.4.2 Regulation of Oxidation-Reduction Potential 332
15.4.3 Regulation of Soil Particle Surface-Charge Density 332
15.4.4 EDL Parameter Regulation 339
15.4.5 Regulation of Clay CEC 343
15.4.6 Regulation of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Soils 345
15.4.7 Regulation of Soil Texture and Structure 346
15.4.8 Regulation of Physical Clay Properties 352
15.4.9 Regulation of Soil Strength and Deformability 353
15.5 Conclusions 354
Acknowledgments 355
Abbreviations 355
References 357
16 Technologies to Create Electrokinetic Protective Barriers 363
D.S. Nesterov and V.A. Korolev
16.1 Introduction 363
16.2 Conventional Electrokinetic Barriers 366
16.2.1 Cationic Contaminants 366
16.2.2 Anionic Pollutants 367
16.2.3 Advanced EKB Implementations 367
16.2.4 Using EKBs for Soil Remediation 368
16.3 Electrokinetic Barrier with Ion-Selective Membranes (IS-EKB) 369
16.4 Electrokinetic Barrier Based on Geosynthetics (EKG-B) 370
16.5 Bio-Electrokinetic Protective Barrier (Bio-EKB) 371
16.6 Electrokinetic Permeable Reactive Barriers (EK-PRB) 376
16.6.1 EK-PRBs Based on Activated Carbon 377
16.6.2 EK-PRBs Based on Iron Compounds 378
16.6.2.1 ZVI-Based EK-PRBs 379
16.6.2.2 EK-PRBs Based on Ferric/Ferrous Compounds 381
16.6.3 EK-PRBs Based on Red Mud 382
16.6.4 EK-PRBs Based on Zeolites 383
16.6.5 EK-PRBs Based on Clays or Modified Soils 383
16.6.6 Other Materials for the Creation of EK-PRBs 384
16.7 Electrokinetic Permeable Reactive Barriers to Prevent Radionuclide Contamination 397
16.8 Conclusion 400
Acknowledgments 401
Abbreviations 401
References 403
17 Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: Sensor Potential for Monitoring Electroremediation Systems 413
Cátia Magro, Eduardo P. Mateus, Maria de Fátima Raposo, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro
17.1 Scope 413
17.2 Removal Technologies: Electroremediation Treatment 416
17.3 Monitoring Tool: Electronic Tongues Devices 417
17.3.1 Sensor Design 418
17.3.1.1 Thin-Film Nanomaterials 419
17.3.1.2 Promising Thin-Film Deposition Techniques 420
17.3.1.3 Electrical Measurements: Impedance Spectroscopy 422
17.3.2 Data Treatment 424
17.4 Critical View on Coupling EK and Electronic Tongues 424
17.5 Final Remarks 427
Acknowledgments 428
References 428
18 Perspectives on Electrokinetic Remediation of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Soil 433
Paula Guedes, Nazaré Couto, Eduardo P. Mateus, Cristina Silva Pereira, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro
18.1 Introduction 433
18.1.1 Soil Pollution 433
18.1.2 Contaminants of Emerging Concern 434
18.2 Electrokinetic Process 436
18.2.1 Removal Mechanisms 437
18.2.2 Electro-Degradation Mechanisms 439
18.2.3 Enhanced Bio-Degradation 442
18.3 Conclusion 445
Acknowledgments 446
References 446
19 Electrokinetic Remediation for the Removal of Organic Waste in Soil and Sediments 453
S.M.P.A Koliyabandara, Chamika Siriwardhana, Sakuni M. De Silva, Janitha Walpita, and Asitha T. Cooray
19.1 Introduction 453
19.2 Organic Soil Pollution 453
19.2.1 The Fate of Organic Soil Pollutants 455
19.2.2 Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation of Soil Pollutants 455
19.3 Soil Remediation Methods 456
19.3.1 Physical Methods 456
19.3.1.1 Capping 456
19.3.1.2 Thermal Desorption 457
19.3.1.3 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) 458
19.3.1.4 Incineration 458
19.3.1.5 Air Sparging 458
19.3.2 Chemical Methods 458
19.3.2.1 SoilWashing/Flushing 459
19.3.2.2 Chemical Oxidation Remediation 459
19.3.3 Bioremediation 460
19.3.3.1 Microbial Remediation 460
19.3.3.2 Phytoremediation 460
19.4 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) 461
19.4.1 Basic Principles of EKR 461
19.4.1.1 Electrolysis of PoreWater 462
19.4.1.2 Electromigration 462
19.4.1.3 Electroosmosis 464
19.4.1.4 Electrophoresis 464
19.5 EKR for the Treatment of Soils and Sediments 464
19.5.1 Enhancement Techniques Coupled with EKR 466
19.5.1.1 Techniques Used to Enhance the Solubility of Contaminants 466
19.5.1.2 Techniques to Control Soil pH 466
19.5.1.3 Coupling with Other Remediation Techniques 467
19.5.2 Facilitating Agents for PAH Removal 468
19.5.2.1 Cyclodextrin-Enhanced EKR 468
19.5.2.2 Surfactant-Enhanced EKR 468
19.5.3 Cosolvent-Enhanced EKR 469
19.5.4 Biosurfactant-Enhanced EKR 469
19.6 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Electrokinetic Remediation 470
19.6.1 Effect of pH 470
19.6.2 Effect of Electrolytes 470
19.6.3 Effect of Soil Characteristics 470
19.6.4 Effect of the Voltage Gradient 471
19.7 Conclusions and Future Perspective 471
Acknowledgments 471
References 472
20 The Integration of Electrokinetics and In Situ Chemical Oxidation Processes for the Remediation of Organically Polluted Soils 479
Long Cang, Qiao Huang, Hongting Xu, and Mingzhu Zhou
20.1 Introduction 479
20.2 Principles Underlying EK-ISCO Remediation Technology 480
20.2.1 Desorption and Migration of Organic Pollutants 480
20.2.2 Oxidant Migration 482
20.3 Factors that Influence EK-ISCO Technology 484
20.3.1 Soil Properties 484
20.3.2 Dosage and Methods Used to Add Oxidants to Soil 485
20.3.3 Concentration and Aging of Organic Pollutants 486
20.4 Enhanced EK-ISCO Remediation Methods 486
20.4.1 Electro-Fenton Process 486
20.4.2 pH Control 487
20.4.3 Ion-Exchange Membranes 488
20.4.4 Adding Solubilizers 488
20.4.5 Electrode Activation/Electrode Thermal Activation 489
20.4.6 Nanomaterial-Enhanced Methods 490
20.5 Pilot/Field-Scale Studies of EK-ISCO Remediation Technologies 490
20.5.1 Experimental Design 490
20.5.1.1 Electrode Materials 490
20.5.1.2 Configuring Electrode Settings 491
20.5.1.3 Power Supply Modes 492
20.5.2 Pilot Cases 493
20.6 Conclusions 494
Acknowledgments 494
References 495
21 Electrokinetic and Electrochemical Removal of Chlorinated Ethenes: Application in Low- and High-Permeability Saturated Soils 503
Bente H. Hyldegaard and Lisbeth M. Ottosen
21.1 Introduction 503
21.1.1 Chlorinated Ethenes 503
21.1.2 Low-Permeability Saturated Soils 506
21.1.3 High-Permeability Saturated Soils 507
21.2 Electrokinetically Enhanced Remediation in Low-Permeability Saturated Soils 508
21.2.1 Electrokinetically Enhanced Bioremediation (EK-BIO) 508
21.2.1.1 EK-Induced Delivery of Microbial Cultures and Electron Donors 509
21.2.1.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 510
21.2.2 Electrokinetically Enhanced In Situ Chemical Oxidation (EK-ISCO) 511
21.2.2.1 EK-Induced Delivery of Oxidants 512
21.2.2.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 513
21.2.3 Electrokinetically Enhanced Permeable Reactive Barriers (EK-PRB) 514
21.2.3.1 EK-Induced Mobilization of Chlorinated Ethenes 514
21.2.3.2 EK-Controlled Reactivity of the Filling Material 515
21.2.3.3 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 515
21.3 Electrochemical Remediation in High-Permeability Saturated Soils 516
21.3.1 Electrochemistry in Complex Environmental Settings 517
21.3.2 Electrochemical Remediation in Complex Environmental Settings 519
21.3.2.1 Electrochemically Induced Changes in Hydrogeochemistry 522
21.3.2.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 525
21.4 Summary 527
References 528
22 Chlorophenolic Compounds and Their Transformation Products by the Heterogeneous Fenton Process: A Review 541
Cetin Kantar and Ozlem Oral
22.1 Introduction 541
22.2 Heterogeneous Fenton Processes 545
22.2.1 Effect of Catalyst Type and Possible Reaction Mechanisms 546
22.2.1.1 Iron Oxides 547
22.2.1.2 Pyrite 552
22.2.1.3 Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI) 553
22.2.1.4 Multimetallic Iron-Based Catalysts 555
22.2.1.5 Supported Iron-Based Catalyst Materials 560
22.3 Factors Affecting CP Removal Efficiency in Heterogeneous Fenton Processes 565
22.3.1 Effect of Catalyst Size 565
22.3.2 Effect of Catalyst Dosage 565
22.3.3 Effect of pH 566
22.3.4 Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide Dose 567
22.3.5 Effect of Organic Ligands 568
22.4 Reaction By-Products 569
22.5 Mode of Implementation, Reactor Configuration, and Biodegradability 571
22.6 Conclusions 572
References 574
23 Clays and Clay Polymer Composites for Electrokinetic Remediation of Soil 587
Jayasankar Janeni and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya
23.1 Introduction 587
23.2 Electrokinetic Remediation Technique: An Overview 588
23.3 Clay Soil and Minerals 588
23.4 Clay Mineral Classifications and Structure 589
23.5 Layer Charge 590
23.6 Active Bond Sites in Clay Minerals 590
23.7 Properties of Clay Minerals 591
23.8 Clay Minerals and Their Modifications 591
23.9 Organoclays and Their Properties 591
23.10 Factors Affecting the Mechanism of Transporting Contaminants in Clay Soils 593
23.10.1 Structural Parameters 593
23.10.2 Mass Transport 593
23.10.3 Electrokinetic Potential (Zeta Potential) 595
23.10.4 Polymeric Agent Enhanced Electrokinetic Decontamination of Clay Soils 596
23.10.5 Future Perspectives 597
23.11 Summary 598
References 598
24 Enhanced Remediation and Recovery of Metal-Contaminated Soil Using Electrokinetic Soil Flushing 603
Yudha Gusti Wibowo and Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan
24.1 Introduction 603
24.2 Metal Contamination in Mining Areas 604
24.3 Treatment of Metal-Contaminated Soil Using EKSF 605
24.3.1 Soil Flushing 605
24.3.2 Fundamental Equation for EK Remediation 606
24.3.3 Electrokinetic Soil Flushing (EKSF) 609
24.3.4 Flushing Fluid Enhanced EKSF Performance 610
24.3.5 Preventing pH from Acidification 617
24.3.6 Other Factors that Enhance EKSF Performance 618
24.3.7 Energy Requirements and Future Perspectives 618
24.4 Conclusion 620
References 620
25 Recent Progress on Pressure-Driven Electro-Dewatering (PED) of Contaminated Sludge 629
Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, Amelinda Dhiya Farhah, Mochtar Hadiwidodo, and Mochamad Arief Budihardjo
25.1 Introduction 629
25.2 Electro-Dewatering for Sludge Treatment 630
25.2.1 Conventional Sludge Treatment Systems 630
25.2.2 Overview of Electro-Dewatering Systems 630
25.2.3 Fundamental Equations of EDWSystems 632
25.3 Design Considerations for PED Systems 636
25.3.1 Reducing Electrical Resistance in PED Systems 638
25.3.2 Maintaining Optimum pH and Salinity 639
25.3.3 Determining Sludge Characteristics and Properties 641
25.3.4 Operating PED Under Constant Voltage or Current 641
25.3.5 Determining Appropriate Electrodes (Anodes and Cathodes) 642
25.3.6 Reducing Energy Consumption 643
25.4 Future Perspectives 644
25.5 Conclusion 647
References 647
26 Removing Ionic and Nonionic Pollutants from Soil, Sludge, and Sediment Using Ultrasound-Assisted Electrokinetic Treatment 653
Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, Marita Wulandari, Yudha Gusti Wibowo, Nurani Ikhlas, and Dimastyaji Yusron Nurseta
26.1 Introduction 653
26.2 Overview of Technologies 654
26.2.1 Ultrasonication 654
26.2.2 Electrokinetic Remediation 656
26.3 Desorption and Degradation Mechanism 659
26.3.1 Removing Contaminants by Ultrasonication 659
26.3.2 UltrasonicWave Effect 660
26.3.2.1 Cavitation 660
26.3.2.2 Thermal Effect 661
26.3.2.3 Chemical Effect 661
26.3.2.4 Biological Effect 662
26.3.3 Electrokinetic Remediation Process 662
26.3.3.1 Electrolysis 662
26.3.3.2 Electromigration and Electrophoresis 664
26.3.3.3 Electroosmosis 664
26.3.3.4 Electrooxidation/Reduction 665
26.4 Ultrasonication-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation 666
26.4.1 Recent Progress in Ultrasonication-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation (US-EK) 666
26.4.2 Factors Affecting Performance 666
26.4.2.1 System Parameters 666
26.4.2.2 Contaminant and Environmental Parameters 669
26.4.3 Future Directions 671
26.5 Conclusions 671
References 672
Index 679
