Designed to bridge the gap between the many disciplines involved in carbon dioxide emission management, this book provides a comprehensive yet easy-to-understand introduction to the subject of CO2 capture. Fit for graduate students, practicing process engineers, and others interested in the subject, it offers a clear understanding and overview of thermal power plants in particular and of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) in general.
Carbon Dioxide Emission Management in Power Generation starts with a discussion of the greenhouse effect, climate change, and CO2 emissions as the rationale for the concept of CCS. It then looks at the long-term storage of CO2. A chapter covering different fossil fuels, their usage, and properties comes next, followed by sections on: CO2 generation, usage and properties; power plant technologies; theory of gas separation; power plant efficiency calculations; and classification of CO2 capture methods. Other chapters examine: CO2 capture by gas absorption and other gas separation methods; removing carbon from the fuel; pre- and post-combustion CO2 capture in power cycles; and oxy-combustion CO2 capture in power cycles.
-Discusses both CO2 capture technologies as well as power generation technologies
-Bridges the gap between many different disciplines?from scientists, geologists and engineers, to economists
-One of the few books that covers all the different sciences involved in the capture and storage of CO2
-Introduces the topic and provides useful information to the academic as well as professional reader
Carbon Dioxide Emission Management in Power Generation is an excellent book for students who are interested in CO2 capture and storage, as well as for chemists in industry, environmental chemists, chemical engineers, geochemists, and geologists.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements xiii
Nomenclature xv
Organisation and Use of Book xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Greenhouse Effect 1
1.2 Atmospheric CO2 3
1.3 Natural Accumulations and Emissions of CO2 4
1.4 Man-made Emissions of CO2 7
1.5 Climate Change 9
1.6 Fossil Fuel Resources 9
1.7 Definition and Rationale of CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) 10
1.8 Magnitude of CCS 12
1.9 Public Acceptance of CCS 13
1.10 Show-stoppers for CCS Deployment? 15
1.11 History of CCS 16
2 Long-Term Storage of CO2 19
2.1 Storage Time and Volume 19
2.2 Underground Storage 20
2.2.1 Aquifer 20
2.2.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) with CO2 22
2.2.3 Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGR) 28
2.2.4 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM) 29
2.3 Ocean Storage 29
2.4 Mineral Carbonation 30
2.5 Industrial Use - Products 31
2.6 Requirements for CO2 Purity and Transportation 32
2.7 CO2 Compression and Conditioning 35
2.8 Transportation Hazards of CO2 38
2.9 Monitoring of CO2 Storage 39
3 Fuels 41
3.1 Coal 41
3.2 Liquid Fuels 46
3.2.1 Diesel 46
3.2.2 Methanol 48
3.2.3 Ethanol 48
3.2.4 Kerosene 49
3.2.5 Ammonia 49
3.3 Gaseous Fuels 49
3.4 Fuel Usage 51
4 CO2 Generation, Usage, and Properties 53
4.1 Short on CO2 53
4.2 CO2 Chemistry and Energy Conversion 53
4.3 Combustion 57
4.4 Analogy Between CO2 Capture and Desulfurisation 58
4.5 Industrial Processes 60
4.5.1 Ammonia Production 60
4.5.2 Cement Production 60
4.5.3 Aluminium Production 61
4.6 How Do We Use CO2? 61
4.6.1 Chemicals and Petroleum 62
4.6.2 Metals 62
4.6.3 Manufacturing and Construction 62
4.6.4 Food and Beverages 62
4.6.5 Greenhouses 63
4.6.6 Health Care 63
4.6.7 Environmental 63
4.6.8 Electronics 63
4.6.9 Refrigerant 64
4.6.10 CO2 Laser 64
4.6.11 Miscellaneous 64
4.7 CO2 and Humans 65
4.8 Properties of CO2 67
4.8.1 Density and Compressibility 69
4.8.2 Specific Heat Capacity 70
4.8.3 Ratio of Specific Heats 71
4.8.4 Thermal Conductivity 72
4.8.5 Viscosity 73
4.8.6 Solubility in Water 74
5 Power Plant Technologies 77
5.1 Coal-Fired Power Plants 77
5.1.1 Steam Cycle in a Coal Power Plant 77
5.1.2 Pulverised Coal Combustion (PCC) 80
5.1.3 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) 82
5.1.4 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) 84
5.1.5 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) 86
5.1.5.1 Process Design 86
5.1.5.2 IGCC Availability 87
5.1.5.3 IGCC Efficiency 88
5.2 Gas Turbine Power Plants 88
5.2.1 Gas Turbines 88
5.2.2 Classification of Gas Turbines 93
5.2.3 Gas Turbines and Fuel Quality 94
5.2.4 Gas Turbine Performance Model 95
5.2.4.1 Compressor 97
5.2.4.2 Air Filter 97
5.2.4.3 Turbine 98
5.2.5 Part-load Performance of a Gas Turbine in a Combined Cycle 98
5.2.6 Diluted Hydrogen as Gas Turbine Fuel 99
5.3 Combined Cycles 105
5.3.1 Combined Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine Cycles 105
5.3.2 Cycle Configurations 106
5.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators 109
5.4.1 Introduction 109
5.4.2 Properties of Water/Steam 110
5.4.3 Dew Point of Flue Gas - Possible Corrosion 110
5.4.4 TQ Diagram for Steam Generation 111
5.5 Steam Cycle Cooling Systems 113
5.5.1 Direct Water Cooling of the Condenser (A) 113
5.5.2 Water Cooling with Wet Cooling Tower (B) 115
5.5.3 Air-Cooled Condenser (C) 116
5.5.4 Water-cooling with Dry Cooling Tower (D) 116
5.6 Internal Combustion Engines 118
5.7 Flue Gas Cleaning Technologies in Power Plants 118
5.7.1 Particle Removal from Flue Gas 119
5.7.2 Flue Gas Desulfurisation (FGD) 119
5.7.2.1 Wet Scrubbers 120
5.7.2.2 Spray Dry Scrubbers 120
5.7.2.3 Sorbent Injection Processes 121
5.7.2.4 Dry Scrubbers 121
5.7.2.5 Seawater Scrubbing 121
5.7.3 NOx Reduction 121
5.7.3.1 Dry Low NOx Burners 122
5.7.3.2 Fuel Staging 122
5.7.3.3 Reburning 122
5.7.3.4 Flue Gas Recirculation 122
5.7.3.5 Water and Steam Injection 122
5.7.3.6 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 123
5.7.3.7 Selective Non-catalytic Reduction (SNCR) 123
5.7.3.8 Mercury Control 124
6 Theory of Gas Separation 125
6.1 Gas Separation in CO2 Capture 125
6.2 Theory of Compression and Expansion 126
6.2.1 Closed Systems 126
6.2.2 Open Flow Systems 127
6.2.3 Isothermal Compression 130
6.2.4 Compression and Expansion with Irreversibilities 130
6.3 Theory of Separation 131
6.4 Minimum Work Requirement for Separation - Examples 135
7 Power Plant Efficiency Calculations 141
7.1 General Definition of Efficiency 141
7.2 Definition of the Term ‘Efficiency’ 142
7.3 Fuel Energy 142
7.4 Efficiency Calculations 146
7.5 Heat Rate Versus Efficiency 148
7.6 Additional Consumption of Fuel for CO2 Capture 149
7.7 Relating Work Requirement for CO2 Capture and Efficiency 150
7.8 Terms Related to CO2 Accounting 153
8 Classification of CO2 Capture Methods 159
8.1 Following the CO2 Path 159
8.2 Principles for Combining Power Plants and CO2 Capture 162
8.2.1 Post-combustion CO2 Capture 163
8.2.2 Pre-combustion CO2 Capture 163
8.2.3 Oxy-combustion CO2 Capture 163
8.3 Dilution of CO2 163
9 CO2 Capture by Gas Absorption 167
9.1 Theory of Absorption 167
9.2 Absorption Process 170
9.3 Solvents for Absorption 173
9.3.1 Chemical - Organic 174
9.3.2 Chemical - Inorganic 178
9.3.3 Physical Solvents 181
9.3.4 Ionic Liquids 183
9.4 Solvent Contaminants 185
9.5 Solvent Loading 187
9.6 Energy Use in Absorption Processes 187
10 CO2 Capture by Other Gas Separation Methods 189
10.1 Membranes 189
10.1.1 General Information About Membranes 189
10.1.2 Inorganic Membranes for H2, O2, and CO2 Separation 191
10.1.2.1 Dense Pd-Based Membranes for Hydrogen Separation 192
10.1.2.2 Dense Electrolytes and Mixed Conducting Membranes 192
10.1.2.3 Microporous Membranes for Hydrogen or CO2 Separation 195
10.1.3 Polymeric Membranes for CO2 Separation 196
10.1.3.1 Dense Polymeric Membranes 196
10.1.3.2 Polymeric Membranes with Fixed-site-carrier (FSC) 197
10.1.3.3 Polymeric Membranes Supported Liquid Membrane (SLM) 197
10.1.4 Membrane Absorber 197
10.1.5 Flux Through Membranes 199
10.1.6 Challenges Facing Membrane Technology 200
10.2 Adsorption 201
10.2.1 General About Adsorption 201
10.2.2 Adsorbent Material 202
10.2.3 Adsorption-Desorption 205
10.3 Calcium Looping 206
10.4 Anti-sublimation 207
10.5 Distillation 208
10.6 CO2 Hydrate Formation 209
10.7 Electrochemical Separation Processes 209
11 Removing Carbon from the Fuel - Pre-combustion CO2 Capture 211
11.1 Principle 211
11.2 Hydrogenator and Desulfuriser 212
11.3 Pre-reforming 212
11.4 Reformers 214
11.4.1 Steam Reforming (SR) 215
11.4.2 Partial Oxidation Reforming (POX) 215
11.4.3 Autothermal Reforming (ATR) 216
11.4.4 Combined Reforming 217
11.5 Gasification Theory and Principles 218
11.6 Gasifiers 221
11.6.1 Sasol-Lurgi Dry-ash Gasifier 223
11.6.2 BGL Gasifier 223
11.6.3 High-temperature Winkler (HTW) 225
11.6.4 General Electric Gasifier 226
11.6.5 Shell Gasifier 226
11.6.6 ConocoPhillips E-Gas Gasifier 227
11.6.7 Siemens SFG Gasifier 227
11.6.8 Selection of Gasifiers 227
11.7 Syngas Quenching 229
11.8 Syngas Coolers 230
11.9 COS Hydrolysis 230
11.10 Water - Gas Shift (WGS) 231
11.11 Integrated Pre-combustion Approaches 233
11.11.1 Membrane-Enhanced Water-gas Shift 233
11.11.2 Sorption-Enhanced Water-gas Shift 234
11.11.3 Membrane-Enhanced Reforming 235
11.11.4 Sorption-Enhanced Reforming 238
12 Pre-combustion CO2 Capture in Power Cycles 239
12.1 Classification 239
12.2 IGCC with CO2 Capture 239
12.2.1 Process Design 239
12.2.2 IGCC with CO2 Capture - Efficiency 242
12.3 IRCC - Integrated Reforming Combined Cycle 243
13 Post-combustion CO2 Capture in Power Cycles 247
13.1 Classification 247
13.2 Power Plant with Absorption of CO2 from the Flue Gas 249
13.3 Post-combustion Efficiency Penalty - Absorption 251
13.4 Steam Turbine Steam Extraction 251
13.5 Flue Gas Pressure Drop 253
13.6 Post-combustion CO2 Capture at Atmospheric Pressure with Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR) 255
13.7 Post-combustion CO2 Capture at Elevated Pressure 256
13.7.1 High-Pressure CO2 Absorption Cycle 256
13.7.2 Sargas Cycle 258
13.7.3 Combicap Cycle 259
14 Oxy-combustion CO2 Capture in Power Cycles 261
14.1 Classification 261
14.2 Air Separation for Production of Oxygen 264
14.2.1 Methods and Applications 264
14.2.2 Air Separation by Cryogenic Distillation 266
14.2.3 Mixed Conducting Membrane 271
14.2.4 Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) 272
14.3 Oxy-combustion with Coal 274
14.3.1 Pulverised Coal Oxy-combustion 274
14.3.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Oxy-combustion 276
14.4 Oxy-combustion with Natural Gas 277
14.4.1 Water Cycle 277
14.4.2 S-Graz Cycle 278
14.4.3 MATIANT Cycle 279
14.4.4 Allam Cycle 279
14.4.5 SCOC-CC 279
14.4.6 AZEP - Advanced Zero Emission Power Plant 280
14.4.7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) with CO2 Capture 280
14.4.8 Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) with Natural Gas 284
References 285
Glossary 307
Index 311
