The monograph represents a life-long career in industry and academia and creates an exhaustive and comprehensive narrative that gives a complete understanding of important and state-of-the-art aspects of polymer composites including processing, properties, performance, applications & recyclability.
Based on 40 years’ experience in both industry and academia, the author’s goal is to make a comprehensive and up-to-date account that gives a complete understanding of various aspects of polymer composites covering processing, properties, performance, applications & recyclability.
Divided into 8 main chapters, the book treats thermoplastics vs. thermosets and the processing of thermoplastics; filled polymer composites; short fiber reinforced composites; long fiber reinforced composites; continuous fiber reinforced composites; nanocomposites; applications; and recycling polymer composites.
Readers can have confidence that: - Thermoplastic Polymer Composites (TPC) gives a comprehensive understanding of polymer composites’ processing, properties, applications, and their recyclability; - Provides a complete understanding of man-made as well as natural fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites and explores in depth how short fiber, long fiber, and continuous fiber can transform the entire domain of composites’ processing and properties; - Provides a deep understanding of nanocomposites with more than 50 examples covering both commodities as well as engineering thermoplastics. It presents conducting composites and several bio-medical applications of composites that are already passed through laboratories.
Audience
This unique reference book will be of great value to researchers and postgraduate students in materials science, polymer science, as well industry engineers in plastics manufacturing. Those working in product development laboratories of polymer and allied industries will also find it helpful.
Table of Contents
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
1 Introduction: Technical Background 1
S.F. Xavier
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Thermoplastics Vs. Thermoset Matrices 3
1.2 Composite Materials 4
1.3 Processing 6
1.3.1 Various Processing Methods 7
1.3.1.1 Historical Evolution 7
1.3.2 Extrusion 8
1.3.2.1 Single Screw Extruder 8
1.3.2.2 Twin Screw Extruder 11
1.3.3 Injection Molding 19
1.3.3.1 The Injection Molding Process 21
1.3.3.2 Effects on Composite Structure & Properties 23
1.3.4 Compression Molding 25
1.3.5 Other Methods of Preparation 27
1.3.5.1 Autoclaving 27
1.3.5.2 Automated Fiber Placement 28
1.3.6 Proprietary Thermoplastic Process 28
1.3.6.1 Stamping 29
1.3.6.2 Compression Molding 29
1.4 Test Methods 29
1.4.1 Mechanical Properties 29
1.4.1.A Low Speed Mechanical Properties 29
1.4.1.B High-Speed Mechanical Properties 41
1.4.1.C Impact Strength 41
1.4.2 Fracture Toughness (K IC) 44
1.4.2.1 Fracture Mechanics Testing 48
1.4.2.2 Mechanisms of Matrix Toughening 51
1.4.3 Electrical Properties 53
1.4.3.1 Methods of Measurement 53
1.4.3.2 Factors Affecting Electrical Properties 56
1.4.4 Thermal Properties 57
1.4.4.1 Thermal Resistance (R) 57
1.4.4.2 Thermal Conductivity (λ) 57
1.4.4.3 Heat Distortion Temperature (HDT) 60
1.4.4.4 Vicat Softening Point 63
1.4.4.5 Low Temperature Brittle Point 65
1.4.4.6 Melt and Crystallization Parameters (Using DSC) 69
1.4.5 Thermal Degradation (Using TGA) 77
1.4.5.1 Thermal Degradation of Polypropylene Homopolymer (PPHP) (Using TGA) 77
1.4.6 Optical Properties 79
1.4.6.1 Sample Preparations Techniques 81
1.4.6.2 Methods of Measurement 83
1.4.6.3 Transparency in Polypropylene 85
1.5 Electron Microscopy 86
1.5.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 88
1.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 88
1.5.2.1 Sample Preparation Techniques for TEM and SEM 89
1.6 Concluding Remarks 90
References 90
2 Filled Polymer Composites 101
S.F. Xavier
2.1 Filled Polymer Composites 101
2.1.1 Particulate/Flake Filled Polymer Composites 101
2.1.1.1 Introduction 101
2.1.2 Particulate/Flake Filled HDPE Composites 102
2.1.2.1 History of HDPE 102
2.1.2.2 HDPE Composites With Inorganic Fillers 103
2.1.2.3 HDPE Composites with Organic Fillers 117
2.1.2.4 Organic & Inorganic Filler Combinations 117
2.1.2.5 HDPE Composites with Agro Fillers 118
2.1.2.6 Filled Composites with HDPE Blends as Matrices 124
2.1.3 Particulate/Flake Filled Polypropylene Composites 125
2.1.3.1 History of Polypropylene (PP) 125
2.1.3.2 PP Composites with Inorganic Fillers 126
2.1.3.3 PP Composites with Organic Fillers 130
2.1.3.4 PP Composites with Agro Fillers 130
2.1.4 Fracture Propagation in Filled PP Composites 146
2.1.4.1 Filled PP Composites Preparation 146
2.1.4.2 Skin-Core Morphology/via Flake Orientation Measurements 147
2.1.5 Fracture Toughness (K1c ) Measurements at -30, 25 and 80 °C 151
2.1.5.1 Fracture Propagation in Filled PP at -30, 25 and 80 °C 152
2.1.5.2 Specific Modulus Variation 156
2.1.5.3 Fractography 158
2.1.5.4 Coupling Agents and Interfacial Adhesion 164
2.2 Table-1: Examples of Thermoplastic Matrices Filled with Different Organic/Inorganic Fillers 167
2.3 Concluding Remarks 174
References 175
3 Short Fiber Reinforced Composites 185
S.F. Xavier
3.1 Basic Concepts 185
3.1.1 Natural Fibers and Their Properties 185
3.a HDPE 188
3.2 Synthetic Short Fiber Reinforced HDPE Composites 188
3.2.1 Short Glass Fiber Reinforced HDPE Composites 188
3.3 Natural Short Fiber Reinforced HDPE Composites 190
3.3.1 Natural Fibers and Their Properties 190
3.3.1.A Fiber Attributes Affecting Polymer Composite Properties 191
3.3.1.B Source and Morphology of the Cellulosic Fibers 196
3.3.2 HDPE/Short Kenaf Bast Fiber 197
3.3.3 HDPE/Short Hemp Fiber 200
3.3.4 R-HDPE/Short Hemp Fiber 203
3.3.5 HDPE/Short Flax Fiber 206
3.3.6 LDPE/Short Sisal Fiber 208
3.4 Inorganic Filler/Inorganic Fiber Reinforced HDPE Hybrid Composites 210
3.4.1 Talc/Glass Fiber/HDPE Hybrid Composites 210
3.5 Natural Fiber/Inorganic Filler Reinforced HDPE Hybrid Composites 211
3.5.1 Rice Straw Fiber/CaCO 3 /Talc/HDPE Hybrid Composites 212
3.6 Short Natural Fibers Reinforced HDPE Hybrid Composites 214
3.6.1 Sisal/Hemp/HDPE Hybrid Composites 214
3.6.2 Flax/Wood/HDPE Hybrid Composites 215
3.6.3 Kenaf/Pine Apple Leaf Fiber (PALF)/HDPE Hybrid Composites 216
3.b PP 218
3.7 Synthetic Short Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 218
3.7.1 Short Glass Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 218
3.7.1.A Mechanical Properties’ Enhancement by Adhesion Improvement 220
3.7.1.B Fine Morphology in PP Composites 226
3.7.2 Short Carbon Fiber (CF) Reinforced PP Composites 228
3.7.2.A Utilizing Waste Carbon Fiber from CF Plant 230
3.7.2.B PP Composites with Waste CF (from Plant) 231
3.8 Natural Short Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 235
3.8.1 PP/Short Kenaf Bast Fiber 239
3.8.2 PP/Short Hemp Fiber 243
3.8.3 PP/Short Flax Fiber 247
3.8.4 PP/Short Sisal Fiber 255
3.9 Natural/Inorganic Short Fibers Reinforced PP Hybrid Composites 261
3.9.1 Hemp/Glass/PP Hybrid Composites 261
3.9.2 Vakka/Glass/PP Hybrid Composites 262
3.10 Natural Fiber-Reinforced PP Hybrid Composites 263
3.c PVC 264
3.11 Natural Short Fiber Reinforced PVC Composites 264
3.11.1 PVC/Short Wood Fiber 266
3.11.2 PVC/Short Sisal Fiber 268
3.11.3 PVC/Short Rice Straw Fiber 271
3.d PLA 273
3.12 Natural Short Fibers Reinforced Biopolymer (PLA) Composites 273
3.12.1 History of PLA 273
3.12.2 PLA/Kenaf Bast Fiber 274
3.12.3 PLA/Short Hemp Fiber 278
3.12.4 PLA/Short Flax Fiber 284
3.12.5 PLA/Short Jute Fiber 289
3.E Nylon 6 292
3.13.1 History of Nylon- 6 292
3.13.2 Nylon-6/Short Glass Fiber (GF) 295
3.13.3 Nylon-6/Short Carbon Fiber (CF) 302
3.13.4 Nylon-6/Short Kevlar (Aramid) Fiber 308
3.13.5 Nylon-6/Short Natural Fiber (Pine Apple Leaf Fiber) 312
3.13.6 Tribology of Nylon 6 Composites 314
3.f PEEK 316
3.14 Short Fiber Reinforced PEEK Composites 316
3.14.1 History of PEEK 316
3.14.2 PEEK/Short Carbon Fiber Composites 319
3.14.2.a Structure-Property Relations 319
3.14.2.b Interphase-Morphology 321
3.14.2.c Tribology of PEEK Composites 326
3.14.2.d Fatigue Behavior of PEEK Composites 328
3.14.2.e Ratcheting Behavior 330
3.14.2.f Bio-Medical Applications 331
3.15 Concluding Remarks 335
References 337
Annexure- 1 367
Market Trends for Wood Plastic Composites 367
4 Long Fiber Reinforced Composites 369
S.F. Xavier
4 Long (Discontinous) Fiber Reinforced Composites 369
4.1 Basic Concepts 369
4.1.1 Long (Discontinuous) Fiber Reinforcement 372
4.1.2 Strategies for Long (Discontinuous) Fiber Incorporation in Polymers 374
4.A Polypropylene 385
4.2 Synthetic Long (Discontinuous) Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 385
4.2.1 Long Glass Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 385
4.2.1.A Mechanical Properties’ Enhancement 385
4.2.2 Long Carbon Fiber Reinforced PP Composites (LCFPP) 392
4.2.2.A Electrically Conducting Composites 394
4.2.2.B Recycled Long CF Composites 397
4.3 Long (Discontinuous) Natural Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 400
4.3.1 PP/Long Kenaf Bast Fiber 400
4.3.2 PP/Long Hemp Fiber 403
4.3.3 PP/Long Flax Fiber 406
4.3.4 PP/Long (Discontinuous) Sisal Fiber 410
4.B Nylon 6 413
4.4 Synthetic Long (Discontinuous) Fiber Reinforced Nylon-6 Composites 413
4.4.1 Nylon-6/Long Glass Fiber 413
4.4.1.A Processing 413
4.4.1.B Mechanical Properties Enhancement 414
4.4.2 Nylon-6/Long Carbon Fiber 416
4.4.2.A Fracture Toughness and Fractography 422
4.4.2.B Tensile Properties at Elevated Temperatures 424
4.4.2.C Salient Features of LCF/Nylon- 6 424
4.4.2.D LFT-D-ECM Process 426
4.c PBT 428
4.5 Long (Discontinuous) Fiber Reinforced PBT Composites 428
4.5.1 PBT/Long Carbon Fiber 428
4.d PEEK 436
4.6 Long Discontinuous Fiber Reinforced PEEK Composites 436
4.6.1 PEEK/Long Carbon Fiber 436
4.6.2 PEEK/Long Kevlar (Aramid) Fiber 448
4.7 Concluding Remarks 459
References 460
5 Continous Fiber Reinforced Composites 479
S.F. Xavier
5.1 Basic Concepts 480
5.1.1 Strategies for Continuous Fiber Incorporation in Polymers 480
5.a PP 481
5.2 Continuous Synthetic Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 481
5.2.1 Continuous Glass Fiber Reinforced PP Composites 481
5.2.1.1 Processing and Mechanical Properties Enhancement 481
5.2.1.2 Direct Fiber Fed Injection Molding 484
5.2.1.3 Tow-Pregs Preparation 486
5.2.1.4 Continuous Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composite 489
5.2.1.5 Glass Fiber Mat Reinforced PP Composites - Continuous Process 489
5.2.1.6 Unidirectional Continuous Glass Fiber Tapes Reinforced PP Composites 490
5.2.1.7 Preparation of Endless Fiber Tapes 490
5.2.1.8 Press and Injection Hybrid Molding 492
5.2.2 Continuous Carbon Fiber (CF) Reinforced PP Composites 493
5.2.2.1 Composites with Micro-Braided-Yarn 495
5.2.2.2 Interfacial Adhesion in PP Matrices 496
5.2.2.3 CF Fabric Composites with Interleaved PP Films 498
5.2.2.4 Wood-CF-Hybrid Composites 499
5.2.2.5 CF Composites Hybridized with Self-Reinforced PP 500
5.2.3 PP/Continuous Hemp Fiber 502
5.2.3.A Hemp Fiber Surface Treatment 503
5.2.3.B Thermal Degradation of Hemp Fiber 505
5.2.3.C Hybrid Yarns Woven Reinforcements (Hemp/Polypropylene/Glass Yarns) 505
5.2.4 PP/Continuous Flax Fiber 505
5.2.5 PP/Continuous Sisal Fiber 506
5.2.5.A Plasma Modification of Sisal Fibers 508
5.B Nylon 6 511
5.3 Continuous Fiber Reinforced Nylon-6 Composites 511
5.3.1 Nylon-6/Continuous Glass Fiber (GF) 511
5.3.1.1 In-Situ Pultrusion 513
5.3.1.2 RIM Pultrusion Process 513
5.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties Enhancement 516
5.3.2 Glass Fiber Fabric Impregnation in Nylon 6 516
5.3.2.1 Continuous Method 516
5.3.3 Carbon Fiber Fabric Impregnation in Nylon 6 Melt (Discontinuous Method) 517
5.3.4 Melt Impregnation of Continuous Carbon Fiber Reinforced Nylon 66 Composites 520
5.3.5 Three-Dimensional Fabric Composites 522
5.c PPS 523
5.4 Continuous CF Reinforced PPS 523
5.4.1 Ultra-Lightweight Carbon Fiber Reinforced PPS Composite Using ‘Spread Tow Technology’ 523
5.d PEEK 527
5.5 Continuous Fiber Reinforced PEEK Composites 527
5.5.1 PEEK/Continuous Carbon Fiber (CF) 527
5.6 Concluding Remarks 533
References 533
6 Nanocomposites 545
S.F. Xavier
6.1 Basics 546
6.1.1 History of Nanoscience 546
6.1.1.A The Growth of Nanotechnology 547
6.1.1.B Nano Milestones 549
6.1.1.C Some Significant Achievements in Nanotechnology 551
6.1.2 Nanomaterials Used in Polymers 552
6.1.2.A Nanoparticles/Fillers 552
6.1.2.B Nanoflakes 555
6.1.2.C Nanofibers 561
6.2 Nanocomposites: General Principles 566
6.2.1 Preparation of Nanocomposites by Different Routes 566
6.2.2 Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites 576
6.2.2.1 Methods to Achieve Intercalation/Exfoliation 578
6.3 Nanocomposites with Different Polymers 581
6.3.1 LDPE Nanocomposites with Different Nanoparticles 581
6.3.1.A LDPE/Nano Al2 O3 582
6.3.1.B LDPE/Nano MgO 582
6.3.1.C LDPE/Nano TiO2 585
6.3.1.D LDPE/Nano ZnO 586
6.3.1.E LDPE/Treated Nano Cloisite 20A 588
6.3.1.F LDPE/PE-g-MAH/Cv/OMMT 588
6.3.1.G LDPE/LLDPE-g-MAH/Organo Clay 590
6.3.1.H LDPE/LDPE-g-MAH/Nano Ag 593
6.3.1.i PE/Polythiophene/Sol-Gel Nano Ag 593
6.3.1.j LDPE Foams/Nano Silica 595
6.3.2 HDPE Nanocomposites with Nanoparticles 597
6.3.2.A HDPE/Nano Ag 597
6.3.2.B HDPE/Nano Au 600
6.3.2.C HDPE/Nano Bentonite 605
6.3.2.D HDPE/Nano CaCO3 607
6.3.2.E HDPE/Nano Cloisite 20A/Nano Cu 609
6.3.2.F HDPE/Nano Copper Oxide 610
6.3.2.G HDPE/Nano Fe3 O 4 612
6.3.2.H HDPE/Nano PbS 614
6.3.2.i HDPE/Nano Silica 617
6.3.2.j HDPE/Nano TiO 2 /Nano CNC 621
6.3.2.K HDPE/Nano ZnO 623
6.3.2.L HDPE/Nano ZrP/Oct 627
6.3.3 PP Nanocomposites with Nanoparticles 628
6.3.3.A PP/Nano Ag 628
6.3.3.B PP/Nano Ag/PEG 630
6.3.3.C PP/Nano Ag/γ-Radiation/MMT 634
6.3.3.D PP/Nano Al 2 O 3 637
6.3.3.E PP/Nano γ-Al 2 O 3 -g-PS 638
6.3.3.F PP/Nano BaCO 3 641
6.3.3.G PP/Nano BaSO 4 644
6.3.3.H PP/Nano CaCO 3 645
6.3.3.i PP/Nano CaCO 3 /Nano SiO 2 650
6.3.3.j PP/Nano Cu 652
6.3.3.K PP/Nano Fe 2 O 3 655
6.3.3.L PP/Nano TiO 2 658
6.3.4 PVC Nanocomposites with Nanoparticles 659
6.3.4.A PVC/Nano Clay 660
6.3.4.B PVC/(Single Layer) Graphene 665
6.3.4.C PVC/Multi-Layer Graphene (MLG) 668
6.3.4.D PVC/Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO) 672
6.3.4.E PVC/TiO 2 (In Situ Suspension Polymerization) 676
6.3.4.F PVC/Quantum Dots (CdSe/ZnS Nanoparticles) 680
6.3.4.G PVC/Nano ZrO 2 682
6.3.5 PLA Nanocomposites with Nanoparticles 688
6.3.5.A PLA/Nano Ag 688
6.3.5.B PLA/Nano Au 692
6.3.5.C PLA/Nano Cu-Mt 696
6.3.5.D PLA/Nano SiO 2 700
6.3.5.E PLA/Nano-Precipitated CaCO 3 (npcc) 705
6.3.5.F PLA/Nano-TiO 2 707
6.3.5.G PLA/Nano-ZnO 711
6.3.6 PA-6 Nanocomposites with Nanoparticles 713
6.3.6.A PA-6/Nano-MMT 713
6.3.6.B PA-6/Graphene and Graphene Oxide (GO) 723
6.3.7 PEEK Nanocomposites with Nanoparticles 725
6.3.7.A PEEK/Graphene for Laser Sintering 725
6.3.7.B PEEK/Graphene/MWCNT for Conducting Filaments 738
6.4 Concluding Remarks 745
References 747
Appendix- 1 786
Nanostructures 786
7 Applications 787
S.F. Xavier
7.1 Basic Concepts 787
7.1.1 History and Growth of Thermoplastic Polymer Composite Applications 787
7.2 Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 790
7.2.1 Automotive Applications 790
7.2.1.A Nanocomposites in Automotives 795
7.2.2 Aerospace Applications 799
7.2.3 Marine Applications 801
7.2.4 Military Applications 803
7.2.5 Sports Applications 804
7.3 Construction Applications 804
7.3.1 Repair & Rehabilitation 805
7.3.2 Emergency Seismic Repair 807
7.3.3 Repair & Rehabilitation of Wood Members 808
7.4 Electrical Applications 811
7.4.1 Graphene and Polymer Composites for Supercapacitor Applications 811
7.4.2 Electromagnetic Interference Shielding 812
7.4.3 Metal-Polymer Composites for AC Applications at High Frequencies 817
7.4.4 Carbon Nanotube Polymer Composites for Electrical Applications 824
7.5 Biomedical Applications 829
7.5.1 Graphene-Based Polymer Composites 829
7.5.2 Natural Fiber Polymer Composites 832
7.5.3 Carbon Nanotube Polymer Composites 844
7.6 Tribological Applications 852
7.6.1 Polymer Tribology 853
7.6.2 Influence of Load and Polymer Tg 856
7.6.3 Influence of Reinforcement 856
7.6.4 Influence of Lubricating Additive 857
7.6.5 Influence of Temperature 859
7.6.6 Biomimetics: An Application of Tribology 864
7.7 Concluding Remarks 869
References 870
8 Recycling Polymer Comosites 887
S.F. Xavier
8.1 Environment vs Polymer Waste 887
8.1.1 Polymer Pollution: A Serious Threat 887
8.1.2 Recycling Waste Composite Materials 893
8.1.3 Sustainable Recycling of Polymer Composites 898
8.2 Recycling Filled/Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 899
8.2.1 Recycled Polymer ‘Red Mud’ Composite 899
8.2.2 Recycled HDPE Filled with ‘Waste Mud Solids’ 902
8.2.3 Recycled Wood Polymer Composites 907
8.2.4 Recycled Polymer Composites from Industrial Side-Stream Materials 914
8.2.5 From Recycled Materials to ‘Green Composites’ 918
8.3 Recyclability and Bio-Composites 925
8.3.1 Bio-Composites of PLA 925
8.3.1.1 Mechanical Recycling of PLA/Nano MMT Improves Properties 931
8.3.1.2 Melt Reprocessed PLA/Hydrotalcite Nanocomposites 933
8.3.2 Recyclability of PP/Bagasse Composites 941
8.4 Applications of Recycled Polymer Composites 946
8.4.1 Applications of Recycled Thermoplastic Composite Materials 946
8.5 FRPs: Sustainability and Human Health Issues 951
8.5.1 Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 951
8.6 Concluding Remarks 960
References 961
9 Outlook on Future of Thermoplastic Polymer Composites 979
S.F. Xavier
9.1 Constituents of Thermoplastic Composites 979
9.1.1 The Matrix 979
9.1.2 Reinforcement 981
9.1.3 Interphase 982
9.2 The Future of Thermoplastic Composites 982
9.2.1 Automotive Sector 982
9.2.2 Aerospace and Defence Sectors 986
9.2.3 Bio-Medical Applications 989
9.2.4 Special Applications 993
9.3 Final Concluding Remarks 997
References 997
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