A comprehensive review of algae as novel and sustainable sources of algal ingredients, their extraction and processing
This comprehensive text offers an in-depth exploration of the research and issues surrounding the consumption, economics, composition, processing and health effects of algae. With contributions from an international team of experts, the book explores the application of conventional and emerging technologies for algal processing. The book includes recent developments such as drying and milling technologies along with advancements in sustainable greener techniques.
The text also highlights individual groups of compounds including polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, carotenoids, lipids and fibres from algae. The authors provide insightful reviews of the traditional and more recent applications of algae/algal extracts in food, feed, pharmaceutical and cosmetics products. Offering a holistic view of the various applications, the book looks at the economic feasibility, market trends and considerations, and health hazards associated with algae for industrial applications. This important book:- Provides a comprehensive overview of algal biomolecules and the role of emerging processing technologies- Explores the potential biological and health benefits of algae and their applications in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products- Includes a current review of algal bioactives and processing technologies for food and ingredient manufacturers- Contains contributions from leading academic and industrial experts
Written for food scientists, allied researchers and professional food technologists, Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing: Food and Health Perspectives offers a guide to the novel processing and extraction techniques for exploring and harnessing the immense potential of algae.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments v
About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series xvii
List of Contributors xix
Preface xxiii
Section I Composition and Extraction Technologies For Algal Bioactives
1 Algae: A Functional Food with a Rich History and Future Superfood 3
Gaurav Rajauria, and Yvonne V. Yuan
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 History of Macro- and Microalgae Consumption 4
1.3 Economic Relevance of Macro- and Microalgae 6
1.4 Book Objectives 7
1.5 Book Structure 7
References 11
2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profiles of Macro- and Microalgae 14
K. Suresh Kumar, Sushma Kumari, Kamleshwar Singh, and Pratibha Kushwaha
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Biochemical Composition of Micro- and Macroalgae 22
2.3 Pigments 24
2.4 Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides 31
2.5 Fiber Content 36
2.6 Proteins 38
2.6.1 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) 46
2.6.2 Phycobiliproteins and Lectins 47
2.7 Lipids and PUFAs 48
2.8 Inorganic Elements and Minerals 52
2.9 Vitamins 56
2.10 Phenolic Compounds 57
2.11 Other Compounds 59
2.12 Conclusion 59
References 60
3 Advances in Drying and Milling Technologies for Algae 72
K.Y. Show, Y.G. Yan, and Duu-Jong Lee
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Algal Cell Drying Technologies 74
3.2.1 Solar Drying 74
3.2.2 Oven Drying 76
3.2.3 Freeze Drying 77
3.2.4 Rotary Drum Drying 77
3.2.5 Incinerator Drying 78
3.2.6 Spray Drying 78
3.2.7 Heat Circulation Drying 79
3.2.8 Microwave Drying 80
3.2.9 Polypropylene Nonwoven Membrane Drying 80
3.2.10 Refractance Window® Drying 81
3.3 Algal Cell Milling Technologies 81
3.3.1 Vortex-Bead Milling 81
3.3.2 Shake-Bead Milling 83
3.3.3 High-Pressure Homogenization 84
3.3.4 High-Speed Homogenization 86
3.3.5 Liquid Nitrogen Grinding 86
3.4 Challenges and Prospects 87
3.4.1 Processing Technology 87
3.4.2 Energy Requirement 87
3.4.3 Product Quality 88
3.4.4 Environmental Impacts 88
3.4.5 Future Directions 89
3.5 Conclusion 89
References 89
4 Recent Advances in the Use of Greener Extraction Technologies for the Recovery of Valuable Bioactive Compounds from Algae 96
Marco Garcia-Vaquero, Torres Sweeney, John O’Doherty, and Gaurav Rajauria
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Green Extraction Technologies and Applications 98
4.2.1 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) 98
4.2.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 101
4.2.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 106
4.2.4 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 108
4.2.5 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 110
4.3 Combination Techniques 112
4.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 115
Acknowledgments 116
References 116
5 Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 123
Calle Niemi and Francesco G. Gentili
5.1 Introduction 123
5.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Functional Lipids 124
5.3 Application of Novel Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 127
5.3.1 Algal Cell Disruption Methods 127
5.3.2 Novel Extraction Methods 129
5.4 Future Recommendations 134
Acknowledgments 134
References 135
6 Extraction Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 141
Ariane Tremblay and Lucie Beaulieu
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Proteins and Peptides 144
6.2.1 Cell Disruption Methods 144
6.2.2 Chemical Extraction 147
6.2.3 Enzymatic Processes 148
6.2.4 Recovery/Enrichment Techniques 149
6.2.5 Protein Extraction Methods in Proteomics 150
6.3 Emerging Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 151
6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 151
6.3.2 Pulsed Arc Technology 151
6.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 153
6.3.4 Sub- and Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 153
6.3.5 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and Ultra-high Pressure Extraction (UHP) 154
6.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 154
References 155
7 Extraction Technologies to Recover Dietary Polyphenols from Macro- and Microalgae 163
M. Shanmugam, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and Gaurav Rajauria
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Polyphenols 164
7.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) 165
7.2.2 Solid-Liquid Extraction (SLE) 165
7.3 Innovative Extraction Technologies for Isolation of Polyphenols from Macroalgae 166
7.3.1 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 166
7.3.2 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 169
7.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 170
7.3.4 Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) 171
7.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 174
7.3.6 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 176
7.4 Factors Affecting Extraction 178
7.4.1 pH 179
7.4.2 Solvents 180
7.5 Challenges and Future Recommendations 180
Acknowledgments 180
References 181
8 Extraction Technologies for Bioactive Polysaccharides 188
Rashida Qari and Rajeev Ravindran
8.1 Introduction 188
8.2 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 189
8.3 Conventional Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 192
8.4 Advanced Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 200
8.4.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 200
8.4.2 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 201
8.4.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 202
8.4.4 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 203
8.5 Conclusion 203
References 203
Section II Biological Properties of Algal Derived Compounds
9 Potential Biological Activities Associated with Algal Derived Compounds 211
Yvonne V. Yuan
9.1 Introduction 211
9.2 Antioxidant and Anticarcinogenic Activities of Macro- and Microalgal Constituents 213
9.2.1 Mycosporine-like Amino Acids (MAAs) 214
9.2.2 Scytonemins 218
9.2.3 Pterins 220
9.2.4 Carotenes and Xanthophylls 221
9.3 Antiobesogenic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 224
9.4 Antidiabetic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 224
9.5 Prebiotic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 226
9.6 Immune System Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 227
9.7 Conclusion and Future Work 227
Acknowledgments 227
References 228
10 Algal Polysaccharides and Their Biological Properties 231
Kit-Leong Cheong, Valentina Jesumani, Bilal Muhammad Khan, Yang Liu, and Hong Du
10.1 Introduction 231
10.2 Structure of Marine Algae Polysaccharides 232
10.2.1 Agar 234
10.2.2 Alginates 234
10.2.3 Carrageenan 235
10.2.4 Cellulose 235
10.2.5 Fucoidans 236
10.2.6 Laminarans 237
10.2.7 Mannans 238
10.2.8 Sulfated Rhamnans 239
10.2.9 Ulvans 239
10.2.10 Xylans 239
10.3 Isolation and Purification of Polysaccharides from Algae 240
10.3.1 Isolation 241
10.3.2 Purification 246
10.4 Health-Promoting Activities of MAP 248
10.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 249
10.4.2 Immunomodulatory Activity 253
10.4.3 Anticancer Activity 256
10.4.4 Antiviral Activity 257
10.4.5 Antihyperlipidemic Activity 260
10.4.6 Anticoagulant Activity 261
10.4.7 Antimicrobial Activity 262
10.5 Conclusion and Future Trends 263
References 264
11 Marine Algal Derived Phenolic Compounds and their Biological Activities for Medicinal and Cosmetic Applications 278
Leslie Gager, Fanny Lalegerie, Solène Connan, and Valérie Stiger-Pouvreau
11.1 Introduction 278
11.2 Types and Structures of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 280
11.2.1 Phenolic Compounds from Marine Cyanobacteria and Microalgae 281
11.2.2 Phenolic Compounds from Green and Red Macroalgae 282
11.2.3 Phenolic Compounds from Brown Macroalgae 283
11.2.4 Variability of Phenolic Content in Space and Time 284
11.3 Isolation and Purification of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 285
11.3.1 Importance of the Pretreatment of the Biomass 285
11.3.2 Extraction Procedures 286
11.3.3 Quantification and Analyses of Phenolic Compounds 289
11.4 Biological Properties of Phenolic Compounds in Health, Well-Being, and Cosmetics 290
11.4.1 Antioxidant Properties 290
11.4.2 Antiallergenic and Anti-inflammatory Properties 293
11.4.3 Antidiabetic, Antiobesity Properties and Cardiovascular Protection 296
11.4.4 Antiproliferative and Anticancer Properties 298
11.4.5 Antimicrobial and Antiparasite Properties 299
11.4.6 Antiviral Activities 301
11.4.7 Mineralogenic and Osteogenic Activities 302
11.4.8 Photoprotective Properties 303
11.4.9 Biological Properties Specific to Cosmetics or Cosmeceuticals 304
11.5 Potential Commercial Applications 306
11.5.1 Interest in Health and Nutraceutical Ingredients 306
11.5.2 Interest in Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Ingredients 307
11.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 308
Acknowledgments 310
References 310
12 Algal Carotenoids: Recovery and their Potential in Disease Prevention 335
V. Sivamurugan, D. Radhika, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and S. Murugesan
12.1 Introduction 335
12.2 Types and Structure of Carotenoids in Microalgae 337
12.2.1 General Occurrence 337
12.2.2 Carotenoids Isolated from Seaweeds 337
12.3 Isolation and Purification of Carotenoids from Algae 343
12.3.1 Conventional SLE 343
12.3.2 Microwave and Ultrasound Promoted Extraction 344
12.3.3 SCF Extraction 345
12.3.4 Adsorbent Assisted Carotenoid Extraction 346
12.3.5 Ionic Liquid Mediated Carotenoid Extraction 347
12.3.6 Surfactant Assisted Extraction Method 347
12.4 Biological Properties of Carotenoids and Possible Health Effects 349
12.4.1 Cancer Prevention 349
12.4.2 Antioxidant Activities 350
12.4.3 Antidiabetic Activity 351
12.4.4 Skin Diseases 352
12.4.5 Antimicrobial Activities 352
12.4.6 Wound Healing 353
12.4.7 Miscellaneous Biological Activities 353
12.5 Potential Commercial Applications 354
12.5.1 Microalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 355
12.5.2 Commercial Applications of Astaxanthin and Lutein 355
12.5.3 Macroalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 356
12.5.4 Nutraceutical Supplements 357
12.5.5 Commercial Application of Algal Carotenoids in Feed 357
12.6 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 358
Acknowledgments 358
References 358
13 Algal Derived Functional Lipids and their Role in Promoting Health 370
Nolwenn Terme, Benoît Chénais, Mathilde Fournière, Nathalie Bourgougnon, and Gilles Bedoux
13.1 Introduction 370
13.2 Types and Structures of Fatty Acids from Algae 371
13.3 Isolation and Purification of FAs from Algae 378
13.3.1 Isolation of FAs from Algae 378
13.3.2 Purification of FAs from Algae 378
13.4 Health Properties of FAs 384
13.4.1 Lipids, FAs from Seaweeds and Cosmetic or Cosmeceutical Uses 384
13.4.2 Preventive Effects of n-3 PUFAs on CVD and Metabolic Syndrome 387
13.4.3 Contribution of n-3 PUFAs in Cancer Risk Factor Prevention and/or Therapy 390
13.4.4 Antiviral Activities 396
13.5 Potential Commercial Applications 396
13.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 397
Acknowledgments 398
References 398
14 Algal Proteins and Peptides: Current Trends and Future Prospects 418
Abirami Ramu Ganesan, Shanmugam Munisamy, Rajeev Bhat, Palaniappan Seedevi, Kannan Mohan, and Shingo Matsukawa
14.1 Introduction 418
14.2 Isolation and Purification of Proteins from Algae 419
14.3 Structural Characteristics of Micro- and Macroalgae Peptides 421
14.3.1 Structures of Peptides from Microalgae 421
14.3.2 Structure of Protein and Peptides from Macroalgae 423
14.4 Protein and Peptide Extraction Methods from Algae 424
14.4.1 Physical Processes 424
14.4.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 427
14.4.3 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 428
14.4.4 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction 428
14.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field 429
14.4.6 Microwave Assisted Extraction 429
14.4.7 Membrane Filtration 430
14.4.8 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 430
14.5 Biological Properties of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Possible Health Effects 431
14.5.1 Antihypertensive Peptides 431
14.5.2 Anticancer Peptides and Proteins 431
14.5.3 Antioxidant Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides 432
14.5.4 Anti-Inflammatory Peptides 432
14.5.5 Algal Proteins and Peptides on Immunomodulation 433
14.5.6 Antiobesity Peptides 434
14.5.7 Antidiabetic Proteins and Peptides 434
14.5.8 Antimicrobial Algal Peptides 435
14.5.9 Biological Value of Algal Proteins in Human Nutrition 435
14.6 Potential Commercial Applications of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins 436
14.6.1 Microalgae Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 436
14.6.2 Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 437
14.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 437
Acknowledgments 438
References 438
15 Algal Dietary Fiber and its Health Benefits 446
Shakeel Ramzan, Muhammad Mushtaq, Sumia Akram, and Ahmad Adnan
15.1 Introduction 446
15.2 Dietary Fiber 447
15.2.1 Algae as a Source of Dietary Fiber 449
15.2.2 Marine Algal Polysaccharides 451
15.3 Physical Properties of Dietary Fiber (Dispersibility, Viscosity, Binding Capacity, Fermentability) 452
15.3.1 Dispersibility 452
15.3.2 Viscosity (η) 453
15.3.3 Binding Capacity 454
15.3.4 Fermentability 455
15.4 Therapeutic Effect of Algal Dietary Fibers 456
15.4.1 Antihypertensive Effects 456
15.4.2 Antiobesity Attributes 457
15.4.3 Diabetes Control 457
15.5 Potential Commercial Applications 458
15.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 459
References 460
Section III Application of Algae and Algal Components
16 Applications of Algae and Algae Extracts in Human Food and Feed 467
Sara Amiri Samani, Maryam Jafari, Sayed Mohammad Sahafi, and Shahin Roohinejad
16.1 Introduction 467
16.2 Nutritional Composition of Algae 468
16.3 Application of Whole Algae in Food Products 468
16.3.1 Muscle-Based Foods 468
16.3.2 Dairy Products 469
16.3.3 Cereal-Based Food Products 471
16.3.4 Beverages 473
16.4 Application of Whole Algae in Feed 473
16.5 Algal Extracts as Ingredients in Food Products 475
16.5.1 Proteins 475
16.5.2 Polysaccharides 477
16.5.3 Lipids 478
16.5.4 Pigments 479
16.5.5 Phenolic Compounds 480
16.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 481
References 481
17 Role of Algal Compounds for Human Health 487
Sidra Ehsan, Sumia Akram, Zohaib Saeed, Muhammad Pervaiz, and Muhammad Mushtaq
17.1 Introduction 487
17.2 Classification of Algae 488
17.2.1 Euglenophyta 488
17.2.2 Chrysophyta 489
17.2.3 Pyrrophyta 489
17.2.4 Chlorophyta (Green Algae) 489
17.2.5 Rhodophyta (Red Algae) 490
17.2.6 Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) 490
17.2.7 Xanthophyta 490
17.3 Proximate Composition of Algae 490
17.3.1 Algal Carbohydrates 490
17.3.2 Proteinaceous Biomolecules in Algae 494
17.3.3 Algal Lipids 496
17.3.4 Algal Minerals 499
17.3.5 Algal Vitamins 500
17.4 Commercial Importance of Macroalgae in Human Nutrition 500
References 502
18 Advancements in Algae in Nutraceutical and Functional Food 506
Froylán M.E. Escalante and Daniel A. Pérez-Rico
18.1 Introduction 506
18.2 Algal Derived Molecules 507
18.2.1 Carbohydrates 507
18.2.2 Lipids 511
18.2.3 Proteins 513
18.2.4 Pigments 517
18.3 Perspectives 524
References 526
19 Role of Algal Derived Compounds in Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics 537
María Lourdes Mourelle, Carmen P. Gómez, and José L. Legido
19.1 Introduction 537
19.2 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Pharmaceutical Products 538
19.2.1 Sulfated Polysaccharides and Other Phycocolloids 539
19.2.2 Phlorotannins and Other Polyphenols 549
19.2.3 Sterols 552
19.2.4 PUFAs and Other Lipidic Compounds 554
19.2.5 Carotenoids and Other Pigments 556
19.2.6 Peptides and Proteins 557
19.2.7 Other Bioactive Compounds 558
19.3 Potential Pharmaceutical Formulations from Algae 559
19.3.1 Potential Anticancer, Cytotoxic, and Antiproliferative Pharmaceutical Formulations 559
19.3.2 Potential Antithrombotic, Anticoagulant, and Antihypertensive Pharmaceutical Formulations 561
19.3.3 Potential Antilipidemic and Anticholesterolemic Pharmaceutical Formulations 562
19.3.4 Potential Antiobesity and Antidiabetic Pharmaceuticals Formulations 562
19.3.5 Potential Antibacterial, Antiviral, and Antifungal Pharmaceutical Formulations 564
19.3.6 Potential Immunomodulatory Anti-Inflammatory Pharmaceutical Formulations 565
19.3.7 Potential Neuroprotective Pharmaceutical Formulations for Healthy Nervous System 565
19.3.8 Other Potential Pharmacological Formulations from Algae 566
19.4 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Cosmeceuticals 567
19.4.1 Polysaccharides 568
19.4.2 Phenols and Polyphenols 575
19.4.3 Terpenes 576
19.4.4 Pigments 576
19.4.5 PUFAs and Other Lipid Compounds 577
19.4.6 Proteins and Amino Acids 577
19.4.7 Other Compounds 578
19.4.8 Algal Extracts 579
19.5 Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations from Algae 580
19.5.1 Moisturizing Cosmeceutical Formulations 581
19.5.2 Antiaging and Photoageing Cosmeceutical Formulations 581
19.5.3 Skin Whitening Cosmeceutical Formulations 582
19.5.4 Other Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations 582
19.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 583
References 584
20 Economic Status of Seaweed: Production, Consumption, Commercial Applications, Hazards, and Legislations 604
Anushree Priyadarshini, Akanksha Priyadarshini, and Gaurav Rajauria
20.1 Introduction 604
20.2 World Seaweed Utilization 605
20.2.1 World Seaweed Production 605
20.2.2 Trends in Seaweed Production and Consumption 605
20.2.3 Economic Relevance of Seaweed 610
20.3 Commercial Usage of Seaweed and Seaweed Functional Components 611
20.3.1 Food Applications of Seaweed 611
20.3.2 Nonfood Applications of Seaweed 612
20.4 Hazards Associated with Seaweed Applications 612
20.5 Legislation 613
20.6 Conclusion 614
References 614
Index 617
