Table of Contents
Preface xv
1 Safety and verification concept 1
1.1 Principles of the safety and verification concept for waterfront structures 1
1.1.1 General 1
1.1.2 Normative regulations for waterfront structures 1
1.1.3 Geotechnical categories 3
1.1.4 Design situations 3
1.2 Verification for waterfront structures 4
1.2.1 Principles for verification 4
1.2.2 Design approaches 4
1.2.3 Analysis of the serviceability limit state 5
1.2.4 Analysis of the ultimate limit state 6
References 10
2 Ship dimensions 11
2.1 Sea-going ships 11
2.1.1 Passenger ships and cruise liners 12
2.1.2 Bulk carriers 12
2.1.3 General cargo ships 12
2.1.4 Container ships 13
2.1.5 Ferries 13
2.1.6 RoRo/ConRo vessels 13
2.1.7 Oil tankers 14
2.1.8 Gas tankers 15
2.2 Inland waterway vessels 15
2.3 Offshore installation vessels 19
3 Geotechnical principles 21
3.1 Geotechnical report 21
3.2 Subsoil 21
3.2.1 Mean characteristic values of soil parameters 21
3.2.2 Layout and depths of boreholes and penetrometer tests 27
3.2.3 Determining the shear strength cu of saturated, undrained cohesive soils 28
3.2.4 Assessing the subsoil for the installation of piles and sheet piles and for selecting the installation method 31
3.2.5 Classifying the subsoil in homogeneous zones 34
3.3 Water pressure 35
3.3.1 General 35
3.3.2 Resultant water pressure in the direction of the water side 36
3.3.3 Resultant water pressure on quay walls in front of embankments with elevated platforms in tidal areas 38
3.3.4 Taking account of groundwater flow 39
3.4 Hydraulic heave failure 45
3.5 Earth pressure 49
3.5.1 General 49
3.5.2 Considering the cohesion in cohesive soils 49
3.5.3 Considering the apparent cohesion (capillary cohesion) in sand 49
3.5.4 Determining active earth pressure for a steep, paved embankment in a partially sloping waterfront structure 49
3.5.5 Determining the active earth pressure shielding on a wall below a relieving platform with average ground surcharges 50
3.5.6 Earth pressure distribution under limited loads 52
3.5.7 Determining active earth pressure in saturated, non-consolidated or partially consolidated, soft cohesive soils 53
3.5.8 Effect of water pressure difference beneath beds of watercourses 56
3.5.9 Considering active earth pressure and resultant water pressure, and construction guidance for waterfront structures with soil replacement and a contaminated or disturbed base of excavation 57
3.5.10 Effect of groundwater flow on resultant water pressure and active and passive earth pressures 60
3.5.11 Determining the amount of displacement required to mobilise passive earth pressure in non-cohesive soils 62
3.5.12 Measures for increasing the passive earth pressure in front of waterfront structures 63
3.5.13 Passive earth pressure in front of abrupt changes in ground level in soft cohesive soils with rapid load application on the land side 65
3.5.14 Waterfront structures in seismic regions 65
References 69
4 Loads on waterfront structures 73
4.1 Vessel berthing velocities and pressures 73
4.1.1 Guide values 73
4.1.2 Loads on waterfront structures due to fender reaction forces 74
4.2 Vertical imposed loads 74
4.2.1 General 74
4.2.2 Basic situation 1 76
4.2.3 Basic situation 2 76
4.2.4 Basic situation 3 76
4.2.5 Loading assumptions for quay surfaces 76
4.3 Sea state and wave pressure 77
4.3.1 General 77
4.3.2 Description of the sea state 77
4.3.3 Determining the sea state parameters 78
4.3.4 Design concepts and specification of design parameters 82
4.3.5 Conversion of the sea state 83
4.3.6 Wave pressure on vertical quay walls in coastal areas 85
4.4 Effects of waves due to ship movements 90
4.4.1 General 90
4.4.2 Wave heights 91
4.5 Choosing a greater design depth (allowance for scouring) 94
4.6 Loads arising from surging and receding waves due to the inflow or outflow of water 94
4.6.1 General 94
4.6.2 Determining wave values 94
4.6.3 Loading assumptions 95
4.7 Wave pressure on piled structures 96
4.7.1 General 96
4.7.2 Method of calculation according to Morison et al. (1950) 98
4.7.3 Determining the wave loads on a single vertical pile 98
4.7.4 coefficients c d and c m 100
4.7.5 Forces from breaking waves 100
4.7.6 Wave load on a group of piles 101
4.7.7 Raking piles 101
4.7.8 Safety factors 102
4.7.9 Vertical wave load (“wave slamming”) 103
4.8 Moored ships and their influence on the design of mooring equipment and fenders 106
4.8.1 General 106
4.8.2 Critical wind speed 108
4.8.3 Wind loads on moored vessels 108
4.8.4 Loads on mooring equipment and fenders 110
4.9 Loads on bollards 110
4.9.1 Loads on bollards for sea-going vessels 110
4.9.2 Loads on bollards for inland waterway vessels 112
4.9.3 Direction of line pull load 113
4.9.4 Design for line pull loads 113
4.10 Quay loads from cranes and other transhipment equipment 113
4.10.1 Conventional general cargo cranes 113
4.10.2 Container cranes 113
4.10.3 Load specifications for port cranes 115
4.10.4 Notes 116
4.11 Impact and pressure of ice on waterfront structures, fenders and dolphins in coastal areas 116
4.11.1 General 116
4.11.2 Determining the compressive strength of ice 117
4.11.3 Ice loads on waterfront structures and other structures of greater extent 118
4.11.4 Ice loads on vertical piles 121
4.11.5 Horizontal ice load on a group of piles 121
4.11.6 Ice surcharges 122
4.11.7 Vertical loads with rising or falling water levels 122
4.12 Impact and pressure of ice on waterfront structures, piers and dolphins at inland facilities 123
4.12.1 General 123
4.12.2 Ice thickness 123
4.12.3 Compressive strength of the ice 124
4.12.4 Ice loads on waterfront structures and other structures of greater extent 124
4.12.5 Ice loads on narrow structures (piles, dolphins, bridge and weir piers and ice deflectors) 125
4.12.6 Ice loads on groups of structures 125
4.12.7 Vertical loads with rising or falling water levels 126
References 126
5 Earthworks and dredging 131
5.1 Dredging in front of quay walls in seaports 131
5.2 Dredging and hydraulic fill tolerances 132
5.2.1 General 132
5.2.2 Dredging tolerances 133
5.3 Hydraulic filling of port areas for planned waterfront structures 135
5.3.1 General 135
5.3.2 Hydraulic filling of port above the water table 136
5.3.3 Hydraulic filling of port areas below the water table 137
5.4 Backfilling of waterfront structures 139
5.4.1 General 139
5.4.2 Backfilling in the dry 140
5.4.3 Backfilling underwater 140
5.4.4 Additional remarks 141
5.5 In situ density of hydraulically filled non-cohesive soils 141
5.5.1 General 141
5.5.2 Empirical values for in situ density 141
5.5.3 In situ density required for port areas 142
5.5.4 Checking the in situ density 142
5.6 In situ density of dumped non-cohesive soils 142
5.6.1 General 142
5.6.2 Influences on the achievable in situ density 143
5.7 Dredging underwater slopes 144
5.7.1 General 144
5.7.2 Dredging underwater slopes in loose sand 144
5.7.3 Dredging equipment 144
5.7.4 Execution of dredging work 145
5.8 Subsidence of non-cohesive soils 146
5.9 Soil replacement along a line of piles for a waterfront structure 147
5.9.1 General 147
5.9.2 Dredging 148
5.9.3 Cleaning the base of the excavation before filling it with sand 149
5.9.4 Placing the sand fill 150
5.9.5 Checking the sand fill 150
5.10 Dynamic compaction of the soil 151
5.11 Vertical drains to accelerate the consolidation of soft cohesive soils 151
5.11.1 General 151
5.11.2 Applications 152
5.11.3 Design 152
5.11.4 Design of plastic drains 153
5.11.5 Installation 154
5.12 Consolidation of soft cohesive soils by preloading 154
5.12.1 General 154
5.12.2 Applications 154
5.12.3 Bearing capacity of in situ soil 155
5.12.4 Fill material 156
5.12.5 Determining the depth of preload fill 156
5.12.6 Minimum extent of preload fill 158
5.12.7 Soil improvement through vacuum consolidation with vertical drains 158
5.12.8 Execution of soil improvement through vacuum consolidation with vertical drains 159
5.12.9 Checking the consolidation 159
5.12.10 Secondary settlement 159
5.13 Improving the bearing capacity of soft cohesive soils with vertical elements 160
5.13.1 General 160
5.13.2 Methods 160
5.13.3 Construction of pile-type load-bearing elements 162
References 163
6 Protection and stabilisation structures 165
6.1 Bank and bottom protection 165
6.1.1 Embankment stabilisation on inland waterways 165
6.1.2 Slopes in seaports and tidal inland ports 170
6.1.3 Use of geotextile filters in bank and bottom protection 174
6.1.4 Scour and protection against scour in front of waterfront structures 176
6.1.5 Scour protection at piers and dolphins 185
6.1.6 Installation of mineral impervious linings underwater and their connection to waterfront structures 185
6.2 Flood defence walls in seaports 187
6.2.1 General 187
6.2.2 Critical water levels 187
6.2.3 Excess water pressure and unit weight of soil 188
6.2.4 Minimum embedment depths for flood defence walls 189
6.2.5 Special loads on flood defence walls 189
6.2.6 Guidance on designing flood defence walls in slopes 190
6.2.7 Structural measures 190
6.2.8 Buried utilities in the region of flood defence walls 191
6.3 Rouble mound moles and breakwaters 191
6.3.1 General 191
6.3.2 Stability analyses, settlement and subsidence and guidance on construction 192
6.3.3 Specifying the geometry of the structure 192
6.3.4 Designing the armour layer 194
6.3.5 Construction of breakwaters 198
6.3.6 Construction and use of equipment 198
6.3.7 Settlement and subsidence 201
6.3.8 Invoicing for installed quantities 201
References 201
7 Configuration of cross-sections and equipment for waterfront structures 205
7.1 Configuration of cross-sections 205
7.1.1 Standard cross-sectional dimensions for waterfront structures in seaports 205
7.1.2 Top edges of waterfront structures in seaports 207
7.1.3 Standard cross-sections for waterfront structures in inland ports 208
7.1.4 Upgrading partially sloped waterfronts in inland ports with large water level fluctuations 212
7.1.5 Design of waterfront areas in inland ports according to operational aspects 214
7.1.6 Nominal depth and design depth of the harbour bottom 215
7.1.7 Strengthening waterfront structures for deepening harbour bottoms in seaports 217
7.1.8 Embankments below waterfront wall superstructures behind closed sheet pile walls 221
7.1.9 Re-design of waterfront structures in inland ports 221
7.1.10 Waterfront structures in regions with mining subsidence 224
7.2 Equipment 227
7.2.1 Provision of quick-release hooks at berths for large vessels 227
7.2.2 Layout and design of and loads on access ladders 227
7.2.3 Layout and design of stairs in seaports 230
7.2.4 Armoured steel sheet pile walls 231
7.2.5 Equipment for waterfront structures in seaports with supply and disposal systems 235
7.2.6 Layout of bollards 241
7.2.7 Foundations to craneways on waterfront structures 243
7.2.8 Fixing crane rails to concrete 245
7.2.9 Connection of expansion joints seal in reinforced concrete bottoms to load-bearing steel sheet pile walls 251
7.2.10 Connection of steel sheet piles to a concrete structure 252
7.2.11 Steel capping beams for sheet pile waterfront structures 254
7.2.12 Reinforced concrete capping beams for waterfront structures with steel sheet piles 257
7.2.13 Steel nosings to protect reinforced concrete walls and capping beams on waterfront structures 261
7.2.14 Floating berths in seaports 263
7.3 Drainage 265
7.3.1 Design of weepholes for sheet pile structures 265
7.3.2 Design of drainage systems for waterfront structures in tidal areas 266
7.4 Fenders 268
7.4.1 Fenders for large vessels 268
7.4.2 Fenders in inland ports 283
7.5 Offshore energy support bases 284
7.5.1 General 284
7.5.2 Basis for design 284
7.5.3 Nautical requirements 285
7.5.4 Calculating the leg penetration of WTIVs 288
7.5.5 Maintaining and monitoring the jacking surfaces 291
7.5.6 Logistical requirements 292
7.6 RoRo berths 298
7.6.1 General 298
7.6.2 Loading assumptions for RoRo terminals 299
7.6.3 Kinematics 301
7.6.4 Classification of ship-to-shore facilities 303
7.6.5 Facilities and equipment on the land side 308
7.7 Jetties 312
7.7.1 Introduction 312
7.7.2 Design of jetties 313
7.7.3 Design of berthing and mooring facilities (ship-to-shore) 315
7.7.4 Structural elements of berths 317
7.7.5 Interaction between load-bearing structure and installations on deck 320
References 322
8 Sheet pile walls 325
8.1 Materials and construction 325
8.1.1 Materials for sheet pile walls 325
8.1.2 Steel sheet pile walls - properties and forms 326
8.1.3 Watertightness of steel sheet pile walls 340
8.1.4 Welding steel sheet pile walls 342
8.1.5 Installation of steel sheet pile walls 346
8.1.6 Driving assistance 366
8.1.7 Monitoring pile driving operations 371
8.1.8 Repairing interlock declutching on driven steel sheet piling 373
8.1.9 Noise control - low-noise driving 377
8.1.10 Corrosion of steel sheet piling, and countermeasures 381
8.1.11 Risk of sand grinding on sheet piling 387
8.2 Design of sheet pile walls 387
8.2.1 General 387
8.2.2 Free-standing/cantilever sheet pile walls 391
8.2.3 Design of sheet pile walls with fixity in the ground and a single row of anchors 392
8.2.4 Design of sheet pile walls with a double row of anchors 396
8.2.5 Applying the angle of earth pressure and the analysis in the vertical direction 397
8.2.6 Taking account of unfavourable groundwater flows in the passive earth pressure zone 407
8.2.7 Verifying the load-bearing capacity of a quay wall 407
8.2.8 Selection of embedment depth for sheet piles 410
8.2.9 Determining the embedment depth for sheet pile walls with full or partial fixity in the soil 410
8.2.10 Steel sheet pile walls with staggered embedment depths 413
8.2.11 Horizontal actions on steel sheet pile walls in the longitudinal direction of the quay 415
8.2.12 Design of anchor walls fixed in the ground 418
8.2.13 Staggered arrangement of anchor walls 419
8.2.14 Waterfront sheet pile walls in unconsolidated, soft cohesive soils, especially in connection with non-sway structures 419
8.2.15 Design of single-anchor sheet pile walls in seismic zones 420
8.2.16 Sheet pile waterfronts on inland waterways 421
8.2.17 Calculation and design of cofferdams 422
References 432
9 Anchorages 435
9.1 Piles and anchors 435
9.1.1 General 435
9.1.2 Displacement piles 435
9.1.3 Load-bearing capacity of displacement piles 437
9.1.4 Micropiles 438
9.1.5 Special piles 439
9.1.6 Anchors 439
9.2 Walings and pile and anchor connections 446
9.2.1 Design of steel walings for sheet piling 446
9.2.2 Verification of steel walings 447
9.2.3 Reinforced concrete walings to sheet pile walls with driven steel piles 448
9.2.4 Auxiliary anchors at the top of steel sheet piling structures 450
9.2.5 Sheet piling anchors in unconsolidated, soft cohesive soils 451
9.2.6 Design of protruding quay wall corners with round steel tie rods 454
9.2.7 Configuration and design of protruding quay wall corners with raking anchor piles 456
9.2.8 Prestressing of high-strength steel anchors for waterfront structures 458
9.2.9 Hinged connections between driven steel piles and steel sheet piling structures 460
9.3 Verification of stability for anchoring at the lower failure plane 469
9.3.1 Stability at the lower failure plane for anchorages with anchor walls 469
9.3.2 Stability at the lower failure plane in unconsolidated, saturated cohesive soils 471
9.3.3 Stability at the lower failure plane with varying soil strata 471
9.3.4 Verification of stability at the lower failure for a quay wall fixed in the soil 472
9.3.5 Stability at the lower failure plane for an anchor wall fixed in the soil 472
9.3.6 Stability at the lower failure plane for anchors with anchor plates 472
9.3.7 Verification of safety against failure of anchoring soil 472
9.3.8 Stability at the lower failure plane for quay walls anchored with piles or grouted anchors at one level 473
9.3.9 Stability at the lower failure plane for quay walls with anchors at more than one level 474
9.3.10 Safety against slope failure 475
References 476
10 Quay walls and superstructures in concrete 481
10.1 General 481
10.2 Construction materials 482
10.2.1 Concrete 482
10.2.2 Steel reinforcement 484
10.3 Design and construction 484
10.3.1 Construction joints 484
10.3.2 Expansion joints 485
10.3.3 Jointless construction 485
10.3.4 Crack width limitation 485
10.4 Forms of construction 486
10.4.1 Concrete walls 486
10.4.2 Retaining walls 488
10.4.3 Block-type construction 488
10.4.4 Box caissons 491
10.4.5 Open caissons 492
References 496
11 Pile bents and trestles 499
11.1 General 499
11.2 Configuration and design of a pile bent 499
11.2.1 General 499
11.2.2 Earth pressure loads 500
11.2.3 Load due to excess water pressure 501
11.2.4 Load path for piles 502
11.3 Design of pile trestles 503
11.3.1 Free-standing pile trestles 503
11.3.2 Special structures designed as pile trestles 505
11.3.3 Structural system and calculations 505
11.3.4 Construction guidance 506
11.4 Design of pile bents and trestles in earthquake zones 507
11.4.1 General 507
11.4.2 Active and passive earth pressures, excess water pressure, variable loads 507
11.4.3 Resisting the horizontal inertial forces of the superstructure 507
References 508
12 Dolphins 509
12.1 Design and construction 509
12.1.1 Dolphins - purposes and types 509
12.1.2 Layout of dolphins 509
12.1.3 Equipment for dolphins 510
12.1.4 Advice for selecting materials 511
12.2 Detailed design 512
12.2.1 Stiffness of the system 512
12.2.2 Structural behaviour 512
12.2.3 Actions 513
12.2.4 Safety concept 515
12.2.5 Soil - structure interaction and the resulting design variables 515
12.2.6 The required energy absorption capacity of breasting dolphins 520
12.2.7 Other calculations 521
References 522
13 Operation, maintenance and repair of waterfront structures 525
13.1 Operation of waterfront structures 525
13.1.1 General 525
13.1.2 Building information modelling (BIM) 525
13.2 Inspecting waterfront structures 526
13.2.1 Documentation 527
13.2.2 Structural inspections 528
13.2.3 Inspection intervals 529
13.2.4 Structural monitoring supported by measurements 530
13.3 Assessing the load-bearing capacity of an existing waterfront structure 531
13.4 Repairing concrete waterfront structures 533
13.5 Upgrading and deconstructing existing waterfront structures 533
13.5.1 Upgrading measures 533
13.5.2 Deconstruction in conjunction with replacement measures 535
References 535
Appendix A Notation 537
A 1 Symbols for variables 538
A. 1 Latin lower-case letters 538
A.1 2 Latin upper-case letters 540
A.1 3 Greek letters 542
A 2 Subscripts and indices 543
A 3 Abbreviations 544
A 4 Water levels and wave heights 545
List of Advertisers 547
