Comprehensive overview of materials derived from biomass, including extraction techniques, important building blocks, and a wide range of applications
Plant Biomass Derived Materials provides insights into the different sources and kinds of biomass and covers a variety of techniques to derive important building blocks from raw resources; after foundational knowledge is covered, the text continues to discuss a comprehensive list of materials and applications, ranging from nanomaterials, polymers, enzymes, dyes, and composites, to applications in energy, biomedical, water purification, aeronautics, automotive and food applications, and more.
Written by four highly qualified authors with significant experience in both industry and academia, Plant Biomass Derived Materials includes information on: - Biomass and its relationship to the environment, chemistry of biomass, lignin and starch, and recent trends of cashew nutshell liquid in the field - Plant biomass mucilage, plant based colorants, revival of sustainable fungal based natural pigments, and algal-based natural pigments for textiles - Biorefinery from plant biomass (including a case study in sugarcane straw), forest and agricultural biomass, and manufacture of monomers and precursors - Chemical routes for the transformation of bio-monomers into polymers and manufacture of polymer composites from plant fibers
Providing foundational knowledge on the subject and a wide array of specific applications of biomass, Plant Biomass Derived Materials is an essential resource for chemists, materials scientists, and all academics and professionals in fields that intersect with biomass: an abundant renewable resource used for many diverse purposes.
Table of Contents
Preface xix
1 Biomass - An Environmental Concern 1
Deepak S. Khobragade
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Biomass as an Energy Source 4
1.3 The Environmental Concern of Biomass 6
1.4 Air Pollution 7
1.4.1 Gaseous Emissions 7
1.4.2 Dust 7
1.4.3 Biomass Ash (Bottom Ash) 7
1.4.4 Fly Ash 8
1.4.5 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 8
1.5 Water Use and Water Pollution 8
1.6 Impact on Soil 9
1.7 Indoor Pollution 11
1.8 Deforestation and Land Degradation 11
1.9 Health Hazards 11
1.10 Non-respiratory Illness 11
1.10.1 In Children 11
1.10.1.1 Lower Birth Weight 11
1.10.1.2 Nutritional Deficiency 12
1.10.2 Respiratory Illness in Adults 12
1.10.2.1 Interstitial Lung Disease 12
1.10.2.2 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) 12
1.10.2.3 Tuberculosis 12
1.10.2.4 Lung Cancer 12
1.10.3 Non-respiratory Illness in Adults 13
1.10.3.1 Cardiovascular Disease 13
1.10.3.2 Cataracts 13
1.11 Safe Disposal of Biomass 13
1.12 The Bioeconomy of the Biomass Utilization 15
1.13 Biowaste-Derived Functional Materials 15
1.14 Conclusion 16
References 17
2 Chemistry of Biomass 23
Wagner M. Cavalini, Breno M. Jóia, Diego E. R. Gonzaga, Rogério Marchiosi, Osvaldo Ferrarese-Filho, and dos Santos, Wanderley D.
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Cellulose 25
2.3 Hemicellulose 26
2.3.1 Xylans 27
2.3.2 Mannans 27
2.3.3 Arabinogalactans 28
2.4 Pectin 28
2.4.1 Homogalacturonan 29
2.4.1.1 Rhamnogalacturonan I 29
2.4.1.2 Rhamnogalacturonan II 29
2.5 Lignin 30
2.5.1 Lignin Valorization 31
2.6 Reserve Compounds 31
2.6.1 Starch 31
2.6.2 Sucrose 32
2.6.3 Lipids 33
2.6.3.1 Fatty Acids 33
2.6.3.2 Triacylglycerols 34
2.7 Natural Compounds (Secondary Metabolites) 34
2.7.1 Terpenoids 35
2.7.2 Phenylpropanoids 35
2.7.3 Alkaloids 36
2.8 Conclusion 36
References 37
3 Lignin from Biomass - Sources, Extraction, and Application 43
Irwan Kurnia, Surachai Karnjanakom, and Guoqing Guan
3.1 Sources 43
3.2 Extraction 45
3.2.1 Alkaline Process 47
3.2.1.1 Sulfur Processes 47
3.2.1.2 Sulfur-Free Processes 48
3.2.2 Acidic Process 48
3.2.2.1 Concentrated Acid Process (Klason Process) 49
3.2.2.2 Dilute Acid Process 49
3.2.3 Solvent-Assisted Extraction Processes 49
3.2.3.1 Organosolv Process 49
3.2.3.2 Aldehyde-Assisted Process 49
3.2.3.3 GVL-Assisted Process 50
3.2.3.4 Ionic Liquid Process 50
3.2.3.5 Deep Eutectic Solvents Process 51
3.2.4 Physical-Assisted Extraction Processes 51
3.2.4.1 Milled-Wood Process 51
3.2.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Process 51
3.2.5 Enzymatic Process 52
3.3 Application 53
3.3.1 Lignin-Derived Nanomaterials 53
3.3.1.1 Biomedical Materials 54
3.3.1.2 Energy Storage Materials 55
3.4 Summary and Outlook 57
Acknowledgments 57
References 58
4 Starch from Biomass - Sources, Extraction, and Application 63
Abdelaziz Amir, Trache Djalal, Sahnoun Nassima, and Tarchoune A. Fouzi
4.1 Introduction 63
4.1.1 Starch Source 63
4.1.2 Root and Tuber Starch Sources 63
4.1.2.1 Potato 63
4.1.2.2 Sweet Potato 65
4.1.2.3 Cassava 67
4.1.2.4 Yam 69
4.1.3 Cereal Starch Sources 70
4.1.3.1 Wheat 70
4.1.3.2 Corn 72
4.1.3.3 Rice 73
4.1.3.4 Oats 74
4.1.3.5 Barley 75
4.1.4 Nonconventional Starch Sources 76
4.1.4.1 Legumes 76
4.1.4.2 Fruits 77
4.2 Starch Extraction 80
4.2.1 Milling Process and its Effect on Starch Structure 80
4.2.1.1 Dry Milling 80
4.2.1.2 Wet Milling 81
4.2.1.3 Effect of the Milling Process on Starch Structure 81
4.2.2 Examples of Starch Extraction from Different Sources 82
4.2.2.1 Extraction of Starch from Tubers 82
4.2.2.2 Extraction of Starch from Cereals and Pulses 83
4.2.3 Nonconventionnel Extraction Techniques 85
4.2.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted Milling 85
4.2.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Starch Extraction 85
4.2.3.3 Air-Classification Assisted Milling 86
4.2.3.4 Electrostatic Separation 86
4.2.3.5 Gluten Washing 87
4.3 Starch Applications 87
4.3.1 Medical Applications 87
4.3.1.1 Drug Delivery Systems 87
4.3.1.2 Surgical Sutures 88
4.3.1.3 Bone Fixation and Regeneration 88
4.3.1.4 Tissue Adhesion 89
4.3.2 Water Treatment 89
4.3.3 Agricultural Applications 90
4.3.4 Packaging Applications 93
4.3.5 Food Applications 94
4.4 Conclusions 95
References 96
5 Recent Trends of Cashew Nutshell Liquid: Extraction, Chemistry, and Applications 117
Sixberth Mlowe and James Mgaya
5.1 Introduction 117
5.2 Global Production of Cashew in the World 118
5.3 Extraction of CNSL 118
5.3.1 Thermal Extraction 118
5.3.2 Mechanical Extraction 119
5.3.3 Solvent Extraction 120
5.4 Isolation and the Chemistry of Major Components of CNSL 120
5.4.1 Isolation of the Components of Natural CNSL 121
5.4.2 Isolation of the Components of Technical CNSL 122
5.5 Recent Developments in the Chemical Transformation and Uses of Cashew Nutshell Liquid 123
5.5.1 Pharmaceutical Drugs from Cardanol 123
5.5.2 Anthraquinone-Based Dyes from Anacardic Acid 125
5.5.3 CNSL-Based UV Absorbers 126
5.5.4 CNSL in Preparation of Bioactive Nanocarriers 127
5.5.5 CNSL as a Green Catalyst 127
5.5.6 CNSL-Derived Bifunctional Chemicals 128
5.5.7 CNSL-Based Flame Retardants 129
5.5.8 Use of Cashew Nutshell Liquid in the Synthesis of Nanomaterials 130
5.5.9 Use of Cashew Nutshell for Decontamination of Polluted Environment 131
5.5.10 Use of CNSL for Preparation of Resins, Adhesives, and Coatings 133
5.6 Conclusions 134
Acknowledgment 134
References 134
6 Plant Biomass Seed and Root Mucilage: Extraction and Properties 141
Mohsin A. Raza, Paul D. Hallett, and Waheed Afzal
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Extraction and Preparation Methods 144
6.2.1 Mucilage Extraction and Preparation 144
6.2.2 Other Mucilage Extraction Methods 144
6.2.3 Model Compounds Preparation 145
6.2.4 Density and Viscosity Measurements 145
6.3 Results and Discussion 146
6.3.1 Density 146
6.3.2 Viscosity 149
6.3.3 Model Compounds 152
6.4 Conclusion 156
References 157
7 Plant-Based Colorants: Isolation and Application 159
Vandana Bhandari, Pratikhya Badanayak, and Seiko Jose
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Classification of Natural Colorants 160
7.2.1 Classification Based on the Sources of Colorants 160
7.2.1.1 Plant-Based Natural Colorants 160
7.2.1.2 Colorant Obtained from Animal Sources 162
7.2.1.3 Mineral-Based Natural Colorants 162
7.2.1.4 Microbial and Fungal Origin 163
7.2.2 Classification on the Basis of Chemical Constituents Present 163
7.2.2.1 Indigoid Dyes 163
7.2.2.2 Anthraquinone Dyes 164
7.2.2.3 Naphthoquinone Dyes 164
7.2.2.4 Flavonoid Dyes 165
7.2.2.5 Carotenoid Dyes 165
7.2.2.6 Tannin-Based Dyes 165
7.2.3 Classification on the Basis of Colors Obtained 165
7.2.3.1 Natural Yellow Dyes 165
7.2.3.2 Natural Red Dyes 165
7.2.3.3 Natural Blue Dyes 166
7.2.3.4 Natural Black Dyes 166
7.2.3.5 Natural Brown Dyes 166
7.2.4 Classification on the Basis of Methods of Applications 166
7.3 Extraction Methods of Naturally Occurring Colorants 167
7.3.1 Conventional/Traditional Methods 167
7.3.1.1 Aqueous Extraction 167
7.3.1.2 Nonaqueous Extraction 168
7.3.2 New Innovative/Modern Methods 169
7.3.2.1 Radiation-Based Extraction (Gamma, Plasma, Microwave, Ultraviolet, and Ultrasonic Radiation) 169
7.3.2.2 Gamma Radiation 170
7.3.2.3 Ultraviolet Radiation 170
7.3.2.4 Ultrasonic Radiation 170
7.3.2.5 Supercritical Extraction 170
7.3.2.6 Enzymatic Method 171
7.4 Mordanting 171
7.4.1 Metal Salts Mordants 172
7.4.2 Oil Mordants 172
7.4.3 Tannins 172
7.5 Mordanting Methods 173
7.6 Functional Properties of Natural Colorants 173
7.6.1 Antimicrobial Property 173
7.6.2 Deodorant Properties of Natural Dyes 175
7.6.3 UV-Protection Property of Natural Dyes 175
7.6.4 Insect-Repellent Properties of Natural Dyes 176
7.7 Fastness Properties of Natural Dyes 176
7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Dyes 177
7.8.1 Advantages 177
7.8.2 Disadvantages 178
7.9 Conclusion 178
References 179
8 Revival of Sustainable Fungal-Based Natural Pigments 189
Shahid Adeel, Amna Naseer, Bisma, Fazal-ur-Rehman, Noman Habib, and Atya Hassan
8.1 Introduction 189
8.2 Classification of Natural Dyes Based on Sources 190
8.3 Fungal-Based Dyes and Pigments 190
8.4 Classification of Fungal Pigments 190
8.4.1 Species of the Trichocomaceae Family Producing Pigments 191
8.4.1.1 Aspergillus 191
8.4.1.2 Penicillium 193
8.4.1.3 Talaromyces Species 194
8.4.2 Species of the Monascaceae Family Producing Pigments 196
8.4.2.1 Monascus purpureus 196
8.4.3 Species of the Nectriaceae Family Producing Pigments 198
8.4.3.1 Fusarium oxysporum 198
8.4.3.2 Fusarium graminearum 199
8.4.3.3 Fusarium fujikuroi 201
8.4.4 Species of the Hypocreaceae Family Producing Pigments 202
8.4.4.1 Trichoderma harzianum 202
8.4.4.2 Trichoderma spirale 204
8.4.5 Species of the Pleosporaceae Family Producing Pigments 205
8.4.5.1 Pleosporaceae spp. (Alternaria, Curvularia, and Drechslera) 205
8.5 Conclusion 207
References 207
9 Modern Approach Toward Algal-Based Natural Pigments for Textiles 213
Mahwish Salman, Shahid Adeel, Mehwish Naseer, Muhammad Zulqurnain Haider, and Fozia Anjum
9.1 Introduction 213
9.1.1 Bio-Pigments 216
9.2 Diversity of Bio-Pigments Present in Algae 216
9.2.1 Chlorophyll 217
9.2.2 Carotenoids 218
9.2.3 Phycobilisomes 218
9.2.4 Phycobilins 219
9.2.5 Phycocyanin 219
9.2.6 Phycoerythrin 220
9.3 Extraction Methods of Bio-Pigments 220
9.4 Conventional Extraction Methods 220
9.4.1 Classic Extraction 220
9.4.1.1 Solvent-Based Extraction 220
9.4.1.2 Thermal Treatment 221
9.4.1.3 Freeze-Thaw Method 221
9.4.1.4 Enzymatic Extraction 221
9.4.2 Modern Extraction Methods 222
9.4.2.1 Pressurized Systems 222
9.4.2.2 Wave-Energy-Based Cell Disruption 222
9.4.2.3 Cell Milking 224
9.4.2.4 Electroextraction 224
9.4.2.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 225
9.4.3 Novel Extraction Methodologies 225
9.4.3.1 Laser 226
9.4.3.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 226
9.4.3.3 High Voltage Electrical Discharge (HVED) 226
9.4.3.4 Ohmic Heating (OH) 226
9.5 Algal-Based Natural Dyes 227
9.6 Bio-Pigments in the Textile Industry 229
9.7 Utilization of Algal-Based Natural Dyes in Different Industries 230
9.8 Future Prospective of Algal-Based Bio-Pigments 231
9.9 Conclusion 232
References 233
10 Biorefinery from Plant Biomass: A Case Study on Sugarcane Straw 243
Fahriya P. Sari, Nissa N. Solihat, Nur I. W. Azelee, and Widya Fatriasari
10.1 Introduction 243
10.2 Biorefinery Concept and Current Trend 245
10.3 Biorefinery Concepts for Sugarcane Straw Valorization 250
10.3.1 Cellulose-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 250
10.3.1.1 Bioethanol 250
10.3.1.2 Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) and Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) 253
10.3.1.3 Biomethane 253
10.3.1.4 Biohydrogen 254
10.3.2 Hemicellulose-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 254
10.3.2.1 Xylose and Xylooligosaccharides Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 258
10.3.2.2 Xylitol Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 258
10.3.2.3 Furfural Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 259
10.3.2.4 Alcohols and Biogas Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 259
10.3.3 Lignin-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 259
10.3.4 Other Components (Extractives and Ash) Derived Bioproducts 260
10.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 262
10.5 Conclusion 263
Acknowledgment 263
References 263
11 Forest and Agricultural Biomass 271
Mohd H. Mohamad Amini
11.1 Introduction 271
11.2 Forest Sources 272
11.2.1 Virgin and Natural Forest 272
11.2.1.1 Hardwood 273
11.2.1.2 Softwood 273
11.3 Plantation Forest 274
11.3.1 Timber Species 275
11.3.1.1 Acacia mangium 275
11.3.1.2 Rubber Tree 276
11.3.1.3 Pinus radiata 276
11.3.1.4 Tectona grandis 276
11.3.2 Non-timber Species 276
11.3.2.1 Bamboo 277
11.3.2.2 Jute and Kenaf 278
11.4 Agricultural Biomass 279
11.4.1 Corn/Maize 279
11.4.2 Sugarcane 280
11.4.3 Oil Palm 280
11.4.4 Wheat 281
11.4.5 Cassava 282
11.4.6 Coconut 283
11.4.7 Rice 284
11.4.8 Others 284
11.5 Biomass Extraction and Application 285
11.6 Conclusion and Prospect 286
References 286
12 Manufacture of Monomers and Precursors from Plant Biomass 291
Catarina P. Gomes, Amir Bzainia, Ayssata Almeida, Cláudia Martins, Rolando C.S. Dias, and Mário Rui P.F.N. Costa
12.1 Introduction 291
12.2 Industrially Relevant Monomers and Precursors from Plant Biomass 295
12.2.1 Saccharides 295
12.2.2 Ethanol 298
12.2.3 Lactic Acid 300
12.2.4 Itaconic Acid 302
12.2.5 Succinic Acid 302
12.2.6 Sorbitol and Xylitol 303
12.2.7 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural 303
12.2.8 Hydroxy Acids for Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) 304
12.2.9 Further Chemicals with Practical Relevance 306
12.3 Other Monomers and Precursors Through the Biotechnological Pathway 312
12.4 Other Monomers and Precursors Through the Catalytic Pathway 313
12.5 Conclusion 314
Abbreviations 314
Acknowledgments 315
References 316
13 Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Bio-monomers into Polymers 329
Catarina P. Gomes, Amir Bzainia, Ayssata Almeida, Cláudia Martins, Rolando C.S. Dias, and Mário Rui P.F.N. Costa
13.1 Introduction 329
13.2 Main Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Bio-monomers into Polymers 329
13.2.1 Ring-Opening Polymerization 330
13.2.2 Condensation Polymerization 333
13.2.3 Free Radical Polymerization 336
13.3 Exploitation of Olive Tree and Olive Oil Residues as Feedstock for Biopolymers Production 339
13.3.1 Second Generation Bioethanol and Platform Chemicals for the Polymer Industries from Lignocellulosic Fractions 341
13.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 342
13.3.3 Exploitation of Residual Oils from Olive Mills and Olive Pomace to Get Polymerizable Monomers 343
13.3.4 Polyphenols in Olive Tree Residues for Advanced Functional Polymers 343
13.4 Exploitation of Winemaking Residues for Biopolymers Production 345
13.4.1 Bioethanol 345
13.4.2 Lactic Acid, Xylitol and Furfural 346
13.4.3 Succinic Acid 346
13.4.4 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) 347
13.4.5 Bio-oils from Winemaking Residues for Generation of Polymerizable Monomers 347
13.4.6 Polyphenols in Winery Residues for Advanced Functional Polymers 348
13.5 Conclusion 348
Abbreviations 349
Acknowledgments 350
References 350
14 Manufacture of Polymer Composites from Plant Fibers 363
Md. Reazuddin Repon, Tarekul Islam, Tarikul Islam, and Md. Abdul Alim
14.1 Introduction 363
14.2 Biocomposites 365
14.2.1 Plant-based Natural Fibers 366
14.2.2 Polymer Matrix 367
14.3 Fiber Treatment and Modification 371
14.4 Fabrication of Composites 373
14.5 Mechanical Properties of Micro and Nanopolymer Composites 376
14.6 Biodegradability of Micro and Nano-Polymer Compounds 377
14.7 Potential Application Areas of Micro and Nanopolymer Composites 378
14.8 Conclusion 381
References 382
15 Lignin-Based Composites and Nanocomposites 389
Rubén Teijido, Julia Sanchez-Bodón, Antonio Veloso-Fernández, Leyre Pérez-Álvarez, Ana C. Lopes, Isabel Moreno-Benítez, José L. Vilas-Vilela, and Leire Ruiz-Rubio
15.1 Lignin Introduction 389
15.2 Synthesis of Lignin-Based Nanoparticles 393
15.2.1 Acid-Catalyzed Precipitation 393
15.2.2 Flash Precipitation and Nanoprecipitation 394
15.2.3 Solvent Exchange 395
15.2.4 Water-in-Oil (W/O) Microemulsion Methods 395
15.2.5 Homogenization and Ultrasonication 395
15.3 Lignin Properties and Applications 396
15.3.1 Lignin Nanoparticles-Matrix Interactions 397
15.3.2 High-Temperature Requiring Applications 398
15.3.3 Biomedical Applications 400
15.3.4 Environmental Applications 402
15.3.5 Energy Storage, Catalysis, and Electrochemistry Applications 405
15.3.5.1 Catalysis and Environmental Remediation 405
15.3.5.2 Energy Storage Applications: Electrodes and Supercapacitors 406
15.3.6 Civil Engineering Applications (Construction, Protective Coatings, and Mechanical Reinforcing Applications) 406
15.4 Conclusion and Future Work 407
Acknowledgments 412
References 412
16 Bio Plastics from Biomass 421
Alcides L. Leao, Ivana Cesarino, Milena C. de Souza, Ivan Moroz, and Mohammad Jawaid
16.1 Introduction 421
16.2 Types and Applications of Bioplastics 422
16.3 Global Market 427
16.4 Bioplastics Processing and Applications 429
16.4.1 Polyamides 430
16.4.2 Pp 431
16.4.3 PBAT and PBS 432
16.4.4 Cellulose 432
16.5 Conclusion 434
Acknowledgments 434
References 434
17 Plant-based Materials for Energy Application 441
Patrick U. Okoye, Diego R. Lobato-Peralta, José L. Alemán-Ramirez, Estefania Duque-Brito, Dulce M. Arias, Jude A. Okolie, and Pathiyamattom J. Sebastian
17.1 Introduction 441
17.2 Plant-based Lignocellulosic Biomass 442
17.2.1 Composition and Extraction of Lignocellulosic Components 442
17.2.2 Conversion of Plant-based Biomass Into Activated Carbon 443
17.2.3 Types of Activation 444
17.3 Reactor Configuration 445
17.4 Plant-based Carbon Materials for Energy Storage Purposes 447
17.4.1 Supercapacitors 448
17.4.2 Hydrogen Storage 449
17.4.3 Microbial Fuel Cells 450
17.4.4 Plant-based Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis 451
17.4.4.1 Green Heterogeneous Catalysts 452
17.4.4.2 Development and Activation of Green Heterogeneous Catalysts 452
17.5 Challenges 456
17.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 456
References 457
18 Plant Biomass for Water Purification Applications 465
Humayra A. Himu, Tanvir M. Dip, Ayesha S. Emu, A T M F. Ahmed, and Md. Syduzzaman
18.1 Introduction 465
18.2 Sources of Plant Biomass Used for Water Purification 469
18.2.1 Agricultural Peel-Based Biomass 471
18.2.2 Leaf-Based Biomass 471
18.2.3 Stems and Roots-Based Biomass 472
18.2.4 Powder and Dust-Based Biomass 472
18.2.5 Floating Plants, Beds, and Wetlands 473
18.3 Modification of Plant Biomass 473
18.3.1 Physical Modification 473
18.3.2 Chemical Modification 474
18.3.2.1 Chemically Modified Plant Biomass for Water Purification 474
18.3.2.2 Three-Dimensional Porous Cake-Like Biosorbent 474
18.3.3 Thermochemical Modification 477
18.3.3.1 Plant Biomass-Derived Biochar 477
18.3.3.2 Plant Biomass-Derived AC 477
18.4 Plant Biomass-Based Water Purification Processes/Techniques 479
18.4.1 Adsorbent-Based Process 480
18.4.2 Solar Steam Generation (SSG) Device for Desalination and Filtration 481
18.4.3 Biosorption 482
18.4.4 Membrane Filtration 485
18.5 Purification Mechanism 486
18.5.1 For Dye Removal 486
18.5.2 For Heavy Metal Removal 487
18.5.3 For Other Compounds Removal 489
18.6 Sector-Based Water Purification 489
18.6.1 Drinking Water 491
18.6.2 Industrial Wastewater 493
18.6.3 Domestic Wastewater 494
18.6.4 Agricultural Wastewater 494
18.7 Regeneration and Reuse 495
18.8 Limitations, Challenges, and Future Outlooks 497
18.9 Conclusion 498
References 498
19 Sustainable Biocomposite-Based Biomass for Aerospace Applications 517
Mazlan Norkhairunnisa, Tay Chai Hua, Farid Bajuri, Izzat N. Yaacob, and Kamarul A. Ahmad
19.1 Introduction 517
19.2 Bioresin 518
19.2.1 Biodegradability and Properties of Sustainable Bioresin 519
19.3 Biocomposite 523
19.3.1 Design of Biocomposite for Aerospace Application Reinforcement 524
19.3.1.1 Plant-Based Fiber 524
19.3.1.2 Animal-Based Fiber 524
19.3.1.3 Biofillers 525
19.3.2 Material Selection and Its Properties in Aerospace Applications 525
19.3.3 Biocomposite Performances and Applications in Aerospace Structure Design 526
19.3.3.1 Advantageous and Disadvantageous of Composite in Aerospace Applications 526
19.3.3.2 Application of Biocomposite in Aircraft Structure 527
19.3.4 Sustainability and Environmental Effects 528
19.4 Summary 529
References 530
20 Biomass-based Food Packaging 537
Asif Hafeez, Madeha Jabbar, Yasir Nawab, and Khubab Shaker
20.1 Food Packaging Materials 537
20.2 Food Packaging Material Perquisites 539
20.2.1 Food Packaging Properties 540
20.2.1.1 Thermal Properties 540
20.2.1.2 Mechanical Properties 540
20.2.1.3 Chemical Reactivity 540
20.2.1.4 Optical Properties 541
20.2.1.5 Gas Barrier Properties 541
20.2.1.6 Moisture Barrier Properties 541
20.2.1.7 Durability 541
20.2.2 Packaged Product Characteristics 542
20.2.3 Individual Package Properties 542
20.2.4 Storage and Distribution Conditions 543
20.3 Environmental Impact of Conventional Food Packaging 543
20.4 Sources of Biomass 545
20.5 Processing of Biomass to Food Packaging 545
20.5.1 Thermoplasticization of Biomass 546
20.5.2 Film Blowing 547
20.5.3 Foaming Technology 547
20.6 Food Packaging from Agricultural Biomass 547
20.6.1 Rice Straw 548
20.6.2 Wheat Straw 549
20.6.3 Sugarcane Bagasse 549
20.7 Conclusion 550
References 550
21 Recycling Plant Biomass and Life Cycle Assessment in Circular Economy Systems 557
Joan Nyika, Megersa Dinka, and Adeolu Adesoji Adediran
21.1 Introduction 557
21.2 Process of Recycling Plant Biomass 558
21.2.1 Gasification of Plant Biomass 559
21.2.2 Pyrolysis of Plant Biomass 560
21.2.3 Combustion of Plant Biomass 561
21.2.4 Biological Conversion of Plant Biomass 562
21.3 Processes of Life Cycle Assessment 562
21.4 Literature Review on Life Cycle Assessment for Plant Biomass Recycling 564
21.5 Conclusion 568
References 568
22 The Handling, Storage, and Preservation of Plant Biomass 575
Joan Nyika, Megersa Dinka, and Adeolu A. Adediran
22.1 Introduction 575
22.2 Characteristics of Plant Biomass 576
22.3 Handling of Plant Biomass 578
22.4 Storage and Preservation of Plant Biomass 580
22.4.1 Dry Storage Systems 581
22.4.2 Wet Storage Systems 583
22.4.3 Preservation of Plant Biomass 584
22.5 Conclusion 586
References 586
Index 591
