The Netter Collection of Medical Illustrations: Nervous System, Volume 7, Part I - Brain. Edition No. 3. Netter Green Book Collection

Table of Contents

SECTION 1 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT 1.1 Embryo at 18 Days 1.2 Embryo at 20 to 24 Days 1.3 Central Nervous System at 28 Days 1.4 Central Nervous System at 36 Days 1.5 Defective Neural Tube Formation 1.6 Defective Neural Tube Formation (Continued) 1.7 Spinal Dysraphism 1.8 Spinal Dysraphism (Continued) 1.9 Fetal Brain Growth in the First Trimester 1.10 Craniosynostosis 1.11 Extracranial Hemorrhage and Skull Fractures in the Newborn 1.12 Intracranial Hemorrhage in the Newborn 1.13 External Development of the Brain in the Second and Third Trimesters 1.14 Mature Brain Ventricles 1.15 Hydrocephalus 1.16 Surgical Treatment of Hydrocephalus 1.17 Cerebral Palsy 1.18 Establishing Cellular Diversity in the Embryonic Brain and Spinal Cord 1.19 Generation of Neuronal Diversity in the Spinal Cord and Hindbrain 1.20 Circuit Formation in the Spinal Cord 1.21 Sheath and Satellite Cell Formation 1.22 Development of Myelination and Axon Ensheathment 1.23 Brachial Plexus and/or Cervical Nerve Root Injuries at Birth 1.24 Morphogenesis and Regional Differentiation of the Forebrain 1.25 Neurogenesis and Cell Migration in the Developing Neocortex 1.26 Neuronal Proliferation and Migration Disorders 1.27 Developmental Dyslexia 1.28 Autism Spectrum Disorders 1.29 Rett Syndrome 1.30 Rett Syndrome (Continued) SECTION 2 CEREBRAL CORTEX AND NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS 2.1 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Superolateral Surface 2.2 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Medial Surface 2.3 Surfaces of Cerebrum: Inferior Surface 2.4 Cerebral Cortex: Function and Association Pathways 2.5 Major Cortical Association Bundles 2.6 Corticocortical and Subcorticocortical Projection Circuits 2.7 Corpus Callosum 2.8 Rhinencephalon and Limbic System 2.9 Hippocampus 2.10 Fornix 2.11 Amygdala 2.12 Forebrain Regions Associated With Hypothalamus 2.13 Thalamocortical Radiations 2.14 Neuronal Structure and Synapses 2.15 Chemical Synaptic Transmission 2.16 Summation of Excitation and Inhibition 2.17 Types of Neurons in Cerebral Cortex 2.18 Astrocytes 2.19 Testing for Defects of Higher Cortical Function 2.20 Memory Circuits 2.21 Amnesia 2.22 Dominant Hemisphere Language Dysfunction 2.23 Nondominant Hemisphere Higher Cortical Dysfunction 2.24 Alzheimer Disease: Pathology 2.25 Alzheimer Disease: Distribution of Pathology 2.26 Alzheimer Disease: Clinical Manifestations, Progressive Phases 2.27 Frontotemporal Dementia 2.28 Dementia with Lewy Bodies 2.29 Vascular Dementia 2.30 Treatable Dementias 2.31 Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus SECTION 3 EPILEPSY 3.1 Electroencephalography 3.2 Focal (Partial) Seizures 3.3 Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures 3.4 Absence Seizures 3.5 Epilepsy Syndromes 3.6 Neonatal Seizures 3.7 Status Epilepticus 3.8 Causes of Seizures 3.9 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Ion channels 3.10 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Synaptic Receptors 3.11 Neurobiology of Epilepsy: Antiepileptic Drug Targets 3.12 Treatment of Epilepsy: Preoperative Evaluation 3.13 Treatment of Epilepsy: Resective Surgery SECTION 4 PSYCHIATRY 4.1 Limbic System 4.2 Major Depressive Disorder 4.3 Postpartum Depression 4.4 Bipolar Disorder 4.5 Bipolar Disorder (Continued) 4.6 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 4.7 Social Anxiety Disorder 4.8 Panic Disorder 4.9 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 4.10 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 4.11 Somatization 4.12 Conversion Disorder 4.13 Schizophrenia 4.14 Alcohol Use Disorder 4.15 Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorder 4.16 Alcohol Withdrawal 4.17 Opioid Use Disorders: Brain Substrates of Addictive Behaviors 4.18 Opioid Use Disorders: Overdose Reversal 4.19 Opioid Withdrawal 4.20 Borderline Personality Disorder 4.21 Antisocial Personality Disorder 4.22 Intimate Partner Violence 4.23 Abuse in Later Life 4.24 Delirium and Acute Personality Changes 4.25 Delirium and Acute Personality Changes (Continued) 4.26 Insomnia 4.27 Pediatrics: Depressive Disorders 4.28 Pediatrics: Anxiety Disorders 4.29 Pediatrics: Disruptive Behavior Disorders 4.30 Pediatrics: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders 4.31 Pediatrics: Eating and Feeding Disorders 4.32 Child Abuse: Fractures in Abused Children 4.33 Child Abuse: Staging of Injuries and Injury Patterns SECTION 5 HYPOTHALAMUS, PITUITARY, SLEEP, AND THALAMUS 5.1 Anatomic Relationships of the Hypothalamus 5.2 Development and Developmental Disorders of the Hypothalamus 5.3 Blood Supply of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 5.4 General Topography of the Hypothalamus 5.5 Overview of Hypothalamic Nuclei 5.6 Hypothalamic Control of the Pituitary Gland 5.7 Hypothalamic Control of the Autonomic Nervous System 5.8 Olfactory Inputs to the Hypothalamus 5.9 Visual Inputs to the Hypothalamus 5.10 Somatosensory Inputs to the Hypothalamus 5.11 Taste and Other Visceral Sensory Inputs to the Hypothalamus 5.12 Limbic and Cortical Inputs to the Hypothalamus 5.13 Overview of Hypothalamic Function and Dysfunction 5.14 Regulation of Water Balance 5.15 Temperature Regulation 5.16 Fever: Cytokines and Prostaglandins Cause the Sickness Response 5.17 Fever: Hypothalamic Responses During Inflammation Modulate Immune Response 5.18 Regulation of Food Intake, Body Weight, and Metabolism 5.19 Stress Response 5.20 Hypothalamic Regulation of Cardiovascular Function 5.21 Hypothalamic Regulation of Sleep 5.22 Narcolepsy: A Hypothalamic Sleep Disorder 5.23 Sleep-Disordered Breathing 5.24 Parasomnias 5.25 Divisions of the Pituitary Gland and Its Relationships to the Hypothalamus 5.26 Posterior Pituitary Gland 5.27 Anatomic Relationships of the Pituitary Gland 5.28 Effects of Pituitary Mass Lesions on the Visual Apparatus 5.29 Anterior Pituitary Hormone Deficiencies 5.30 Severe Anterior Pituitary Hormone Deficiencies (Panhypopituitarism) 5.31 Postpartum Pituitary Infarction (Sheehan Syndrome) 5.32 Pituitary Apoplexy 5.33 Thalamic Anatomy and Pathology 5.34 Thalamic Anatomy and Pathology (Continued) SECTION 6 DISORDERS OF CONSCIOUSNESS (COMA) 6.1 Coma 6.2 Disorders of Consciousness 6.3 Emergency Management: Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score (FOUR) 6.4 Emergency Management: Prognosis in Coma Related to Severe Head Injuries 6.5 Differential Diagnosis of Coma 6.6 Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Damage 6.7 Vegetative State, Minimally Conscious State, and Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome 6.8 Brain Death or Death by Neurologic Criteria 6.9 Ventilatory Patterns and the Apnea Test SECTION 7 BASAL GANGLIA AND MOVEMENT DISORDERS 7.1 Basal Nuclei (Ganglia) 7.2 Basal Ganglia and Related Structures 7.3 Schematic and Cross Section of Basal Ganglia 7.4 Parkinsonism: Early Manifestations 7.5 Parkinsonism: Successive Clinical Stages 7.6 Neuropathology of Parkinson Disease 7.7 Progressive Supranuclear Palsy 7.8 Corticobasal Degeneration 7.9 Parkinsonism: Hypothesized Role of Dopamine 7.10 Surgical Management of Movement Disorders 7.11 Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder: Idiopathic Torsion Dystonia 7.12 Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder: Cervical Dystonia 7.12 Chorea/Ballism 7.13 Tremor 7.14 Tics and Tourette Syndrome 7.15 Myoclonus 7.17 Wilson Disease 7.18 Psychogenic Movement Disorders 7.19 Cerebral Palsy SECTION 8 CEREBELLUM AND ATAXIA 8.1 Cerebellum and the Fourth Ventricle 8.2 Cerebellum Gross Anatomy 8.3 Cerebellar Peduncles 8.4 Cerebellar Cortex and Nuclei: Neuronal Elements 8.5 Cerebellar Cortex: Neuronal Elements 8.6 Cerebellar Cortical and Corticonuclear Circuitry: Cerebellar Neuronal Circuitry 8.7 Cerebellar Cortical and Corticonuclear Circuitry: Circuit Diagram of Afferent Connections 8.8 Cerebellum Subdivisions and Afferent Pathways 8.9 Cerebellum Subdivisions and Afferent Pathways: Spinocerebellar Pathways 8.10 Cerebellar Efferent Pathways 8.11 Cerebellovestibular Pathways 8.12 Cerebellum Modular Organization 8.13 Cerebrocerebellar Connections 8.14 Cerebellar Motor Examination 8.15 Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome 8.16 Cerebellar Disorders: Differential Diagnosis I 8.17 Gait Disorders: Differential Diagnosis II 8.18 Gait Disorders: Differential Diagnosis III 8.19 Friedreich Ataxia 8.20 Friedreich Ataxia: Cardiac Abnormalities and GAA Expansion Mutation SECTION 9 CEREBROVASCULAR CIRCULATION AND STROKE Overview and Approach to Stroke Patient 9.1 Arteries to Brain: Schema 9.2 Arteries to Brain and Meninges 9.3 Temporal and Infratemporal Fossae 9.4 Territories of the Cerebral Arteries 9.5 Arteries of Brain: Lateral and Medial Views 9.6 Arteries of Brain: Frontal View and Section 9.7 Types of Stroke 9.8 Temporal Profile of Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) and Completed Infarction 9.9 Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Stroke 9.10 Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Stroke (Continued) 9.11 Uncommon Etiologic Mechanisms of Stroke Anterior Circulation Ischemia 9.12 Common Sites of Cerebrovascular Occlusive Disease 9.13 Other Etiologies of Carotid Artery Disease 9.14 Clinical Manifestations of Carotid Artery Disease 9.15 Occlusion of Middle and Anterior Cerebral Arteries 9.16 Diagnosis of Internal Carotid Disease 9.17 Diagnosis of Carotid Artery Disease 9.18 Carotid Endarterectomy 9.19 Endovascular ICA Angioplasty and Stenting Using a Protective Device Vertebral Basilar System Disorders 9.20 Arterial Distribution to the Brain: Basal View 9.21 Arteries of Posterior Cranial Fossa 9.22 Clinical Manifestations of Vertebrobasilar Territory Ischemia 9.23 Intracranial Occlusion of Vertebral Artery 9.24 Occlusion of Basilar Artery and Branches 9.25 Occlusion of Top-of-the-Basilar and Posterior Cerebral Arteries Brain Emboli 9.26 Cardiac Sources of Brain Emboli 9.27 Uncommon Cardiac Mechanisms in Stroke Lacunar Stroke 9.28 Lacunar Infarction 9.29 Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease Other 9.30 Hypertensive Encephalopathy 9.31 Hypoxia Coagulopathies 9.32 Role of Platelets in Arterial Thrombosis 9.33 Inherited Thrombophilias 9.34 Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome Venous Sinus Thrombosis 9.35 Meninges and Superficial Cerebral Veins 9.36 Intracranial Venous Sinuses 9.37 Diagnosis of Venous Sinus Thrombosis Intracerebral Hemorrhage 9.38 Pathogenesis and Types 9.39 Clinical Manifestations of Intracerebral Hemorrhage Related to Site 9.40 Vascular Malformations Intracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage 9.41 Distribution and Clinical Manifestations of Congenital Aneurysm Rupture 9.42 Giant Congenital Aneurysms 9.43 Ophthalmologic Manifestations of Cerebral Aneurysms 9.44 Approach to Internal Carotid Aneurysms 9.45 Flow Diversion Stent for Treatment of Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysm Pediatrics 9.46 Pediatric Cerebrovascular Disease Rehabilitation 9.47 Introduction and Initial Stroke Rehabilitation 9.48 Aphasia Rehabilitation 9.49 Other Rehabilitative Issues: Gait Training, Upper Limb Function, Locked-in Syndrome 9.50 Other Rehabilitative Issues: Dysphagia SECTION 10 MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS AND OTHER CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERS Multiple Sclerosis 10.1 Overview 10.2 Clinical Manifestations 10.3 Diagnosis: Typical MRI Findings-Brain 10.4 Diagnosis: Typical MRI Findings-Spinal Cord 10.5 Diagnosis: Visual Evoked Potential and Spinal Fluid Analysis 10.6 Pathophysiology 10.7 Pathophysiology (Continued) 10.8 Relapses: Steps 1 to 5 10.9 Relapses: Step 6 10.10 Relapses: Steps 7 to 8 10.11 Relapses: Consequences 10.12 Enigma of Progressive Multiple Sclerosis 10.13 Pathology 10.14 Treatment Neuroimmunologic Syndromes 10.15 Neuromyelitis Optica, Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis-Radiologic Findings 10.16 Neuromyelitis Optica, Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis, and Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis-Histopathologic Findings 10.17 Introduction to Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes 10.18 Stiff-Person Syndrome Spectrum Disorder 10.19 Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes 10.20 Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes (Continued) 10.21 Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes: Central and Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations 10.22 Autoimmune Neurologic Syndromes: Central and Peripheral Nervous System Manifestations (Continued) SECTION 11 INFECTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 11.1 Bacterial Meningitis I 11.2 Bacterial Meningitis II 11.3 Brain Abscess 11.4 Parameningeal Infections 11.5 Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy and Nocardiosis 11.6 Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: Listeriosis and Toxoplasmosis 11.7 Neurocysticercosis 11.8 Spirochetal Infections: Neurosyphilis 11.9 Spirochetal Infections: Lyme Disease 11.10 Tuberculosis of Brain and Spine 11.11 Tetanus 11.12 Aseptic Meningitis and Select Arthropod-Borne Virus Infections 11.13 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Primary Infection of the Nervous System 11.14 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Life Cycle and Antiretroviral Medications 11.15 Poliomyelitis 11.16 Acute Flaccid Paralysis 11.17 Herpes Zoster 11.18 Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis and Rabies 11.19 Parasitic Infections: Cerebral Malaria and African Trypanosomiasis 11.20 Parasitic Infections: Trichinosis (Trichinellosis) 11.21 Parasitic Infections: Cryptococcal Meningitis 11.22 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease 11.23 Neurosarcoidosis 11.24 Neurologic Complications of COVID-19 SECTION 12 NEURO-ONCOLOGY 12.1 Clinical Presentations of Brain Tumors 12.2 WHO Classification of CNS Tumors 12.3 Gliomas 12.4 Glioblastoma 12.5 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Medulloblastoma 12.6 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Brainstem Glioma 12.7 Ependymomas 12.8 Metastatic Tumors to Brain 12.9 Meningiomas 12.10 Meningiomas (Continued) 12.11 Pituitary Tumors 12.12 Clinically Nonfunctioning Pituitary Tumor 12.13 Craniopharyngioma 12.14 Tumors of Pineal Region 12.15 Vestibular Schwannomas 12.16 Removal of Vestibular Schwannoma 12.17 Intraventricular Tumors 12.18 Chordomas 12.19 Differential Diagnosis of CNS Tumors 12.20 Spinal Tumors: Classification 12.21 Spinal Tumors: Clinical Profile 12.22 Treatment Modalities SECTION 13 HEADACHE 13.1 Overview of Headaches 13.2 Migraine Pathophysiology 13.3 Migraine Presentation 13.4 Migraine Aura 13.5 Migraine Management 13.6 Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalagias: Cluster Headache 13.7 Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalagias: Paroxysmal Hemicrania 13.8 Tension-Type Headache and Other Benign Episodic and Chronic Headaches 13.9 Pediatric Headache 13.10 Cranial Neuralgias: Trigeminal Neuralgia 13.11 Other Cranial Neuralgias 13.12 Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension, Pseudotumor Cerebri 13.13 Intracranial Hypotension/Low Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure Headache 13.14 Giant Cell Arteritis 13.15 Contiguous Structure Headaches 13.16 Thunderclap Headache and Other Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department 13.17 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued) 13.18 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued) 13.19 Headaches Presenting in the Emergency Department (Continued) SECTION 14 HEAD TRAUMA 14.1 Skull: Anterior View 14.2 Skull: Lateral View 14.3 Skull: Midsagittal Section 14.4 Calvaria 14.5 External Aspect of Skull Base 14.6 Internal Aspects of Base of Skull: Bones 14.7 Internal Aspects of Base of Skull: Orifices 14.8 Skull Injuries 14.9 Concussion 14.10 Acute Epidural Hematoma 14.11 Acute Subdural Hematoma 14.12 CT Scans and MR Images of Intracranial Hematomas 14.13 Vascular Injury 14.14 Glasgow Coma Score 14.15 Initial Assessment and Management of Head Injury 14.16 Neurocritical Care and Management After Traumatic Brain Injury: Devices for Monitoring Intracranial Pressure 14.17 Neurocritical Care and Management: Decompressive Craniectomy Selected References Index

Authors

Michael J. Aminoff Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Neurology; University of California San Francisco. Dr. Michael J. Aminoff, Distinguished Professor Emeritus in neurology at the University of California San Francisco, is an internationally recognized neurologist, clinical investigator, and author. His published contributions led to the award of a Doctor of Science degree by the University of London in 2000. He is one of the two editors-in-chief of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (2003; 2014) as well as one of the series editors of the multivolume Handbook of Clinical Neurology. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Muscle & Nerve from 1998 to 2007 and has served on numerous other editorial boards. He was a director of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology for eight years and served as board chair in 2011. In 2006, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine and, in 2007, the A.B. Baker Award for Lifetime Achievement in Neurological Education from the American Academy of Neurology. In 2019 he received the Robert S. Schwab Award for outstanding contributions to research in peripheral clinical neurophysiology from the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society. Scott Pomeroy Bronson Crothers Professor, Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School; Consultant, Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; Neurologist-in-Chief, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. Scott L. Pomeroy is an internationally known expert on the biological origins, treatment and long-term outcomes of childhood brain tumors. He has served as the Chair of the Department of Neurology and Neurologist-in-Chief of Boston Children's Hospital since 2005. Dr. Pomeroy graduated summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from Miami University in 1975 and in 1982 was the first graduate of the M.D., Ph.D. program of the University of Cincinnati. He trained in pediatrics at Boston Children's Hospital/Harvard Medical School and in child neurology at St. Louis Children's Hospital/Washington University of St. Louis. In 1989, he won the Child Neurology Society Young Investigator Award for work done as a postdoctoral fellow of Dale Purves. The Pomeroy lab focuses on understanding the molecular and cellular basis of medulloblastomas and other embryonal brain tumors. Dr. Pomeroy has served as an ad hoc and chartered member of many NIH study sections, as co-Editor of Neurology in Clinical Practice and Associate Editor of Annals of Neurology, as President of the Child Neurology Foundation and as a member of the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives. He has received numerous awards including the Sidney Carter Award of the American Academy of Neurology, the Daniel Drake Medal of the University of Cincinnati, the inaugural Compassionate Caregiver Award of the Kenneth Schwartz Center, and the Bernard Sachs Award of the Child Neurology Society. In 2017, he was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Medicine. Kerry H. Levin Chair, Department of Neurology, Director of the Neuromuscular Center at the Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA. Dr. Levin began his position at Cleveland Clinic in 1984 as a neurologist and currently serves in multiple capacities, including Chair of the Department of Neurology, Director of the Neuromuscular Center at the Neurological Institute, Program Director for neurophysiology and neuromuscular fellowships and Professor at the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University. Twice awarded Teacher of the Year by the Neurology Department, Dr. Levin's specialties are electromyography and clinical neuromuscular diseases. Dr. Levin is a fellow of the American Academy of Neurology and of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and his been elected to membership in the American Neurological Association. He has held leadership positions in these and other professional associations and sits on the editorial board of Muscle and Nerve. The author of several books and many articles, Dr. Levin is also engaged in clinical research with interests ranging from the electrodiagnosis of radiculopathy and defects of neuromuscular junction transmission, to the treatment of polyneuropathy.