Lichen is a single entity comprising two or more organisms - most typically algae and fungus - in a symbiotic relationship. It is one of the planet’s most abundant categories of flora, with over 25,000 known species across all regions of the globe. Lichens’ status as a rich source of bioactive metabolites and phytochemicals, as well as their potential as bio-indicators, has given them an increasingly prominent role in modern research into medicine, cosmetics, food, and more.
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen provides a comprehensive overview of these bountiful flora and their properties. It provides not only in-depth analysis of lichen physiology and ecology, but also a thorough survey of their modern and growing applications. It provides all the tools readers need to domesticate lichen and bring their properties to bear on some of humanity’s most intractable scientific problems.
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen readers will also find: - Applications of lichen in fields ranging from food to cosmetics to nanoscience and beyond - Detailed discussion of topics including lichen as habitats for other organisms, lichens as anticancer drugs, antimicrobial properties of lichen, and many more - Detailed discussion on key bioactive compounds from lichens
Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen is ideal for scientists and researchers in ethnobotany, pharmacology, chemistry, and biology, as well as teachers and students with an interest in biologically important lichens.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xv
Preface xix
1 Overview of Lichen 1
Ashoke Kumar Das, Subrata Sarkar, and Papori Devi
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Distribution 2
1.3 Morphology and Anatomy 4
1.4 Reproduction 5
1.5 Lichen Phytochemicals 6
1.6 Economic Importance 7
1.7 Conservation 7
1.8 Conclusion 8
2 The Biology of Lichen 13
Ludmilla Fitri Untari
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Lichen Life Form 14
2.3 The Internal Structure of Lichen 16
2.4 Reproduction of Lichen 16
2.5 Lichen Substrates 18
3 Taxonomy of Lichen 21
Darshita Sinha, Munmi Borkataky, Bhaben Chowardhara, and Ratul Nath
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Identification of Lichen 22
3.3 Nomenclature of Lichen 25
3.4 Classification of Lichen 26
3.5 Phylogeny of Lichen 29
3.6 Molecular Taxonomy of Lichens 30
3.7 Therapeutic and Commercial Values of Lichen 31
3.8 Conclusion 31
4 Lichen as Habitats for Other Organisms 39
Ludmilla Fitri Untari
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Lichens as Habitat 39
4.3 Benefits of Living in Lichens 45
4.4 Importance of Lichen for Biodiversity 45
4.5 Threats to Lichen Habitats 46
4.6 Conclusion 46
5 Ecology of Lichen 49
Tridip Boruah, Krity Dulal, and Puja Namo Das
5.1 Introduction 49
5.2 Ecological Habitats 50
5.3 Ecological Factors for Lichen Development 52
5.4 Adaptations of Lichen 57
5.5 Lichens in Extreme Habitat 60
5.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 64
6 Physiology of Lichen 71
Farishta Yasmin and Rosni Jabin
6.1 Introduction 71
6.2 Physiological Interaction 73
6.3 Metabolism 73
6.4 Physiological Peculiarities 74
6.5 Conclusion 77
7 Lichen as Pioneer of Natural Ecosystem 81
Bhaskor Kolita and Ridip Kumar Gogoi
7.1 Introduction 81
7.2 Lichens as Pioneer of Ecological Succession 82
7.3 Impact of Lichen on Natural Ecosystem 84
7.4 Conclusion 86
8 Conservation of Lichens 91
Beena Kumari, Girish Kumar Sharma, Amit Vaish, Prashant Kumar, and Mohammad Javed Ansari
8.1 Introduction 91
8.2 Important Roles of Lichens 96
8.3 Biogeography (Geographic Distribution of Lichen) 97
8.4 Conservation of Lichen Diversity 100
8.5 Conservation Challenges of Lichens 100
8.6 Recommendation for Conservation of Lichens 102
8.7 Conclusion 105
9 Lichen at the Age of Climate Change 113
Barsha Devi
9.1 Introduction 113
9.2 Adaptation of Lichen to the Harsh Environment 114
9.3 Impact of Climate Change on Lichen Flora 114
9.4 Sensitivity of Lichen to Climate Change 116
9.5 Lichen as an Indicator of Climate Change 117
9.6 Transplant Experiment on Lichen 118
9.7 Carbon Sequestration by Lichen 119
9.8 Conclusion 120
10 Commercial and Traditional Uses of Lichen 125
Farak Ali, Shahnaz Alom, Apurba Gohain, Sheikh Rezzak Ali, Nilayan Guha, and Shuby Kumari
10.1 Introduction 125
10.2 Historical Background 126
10.3 Lichen as Ethnomedicine 127
10.4 Cultural Aspects of Lichen 127
10.5 Commercial Uses of Lichen 132
10.6 Conclusion 133
11 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens and Their Therapeutic Potential 137
Farhan Saeed, Muhammad Afzaal, Muhammad Ahtisham Raza, Habiba Arooj, Mariam Islam, and Rimsha Gulzar
11.1 Introduction 137
11.2 Diversity in Lichens 138
11.3 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens 140
11.3.4 Therapeutic Potential of Lichens 142
11.3.5 Antimicrobial Activity 142
11.3.6 Antioxidant Activity 147
11.4 Conclusion 147
12 Antioxidant Properties of Lichen 153
Hadiqa Faiz ul Rasul, Fareed Afzal, Waseem Khalid, Mateen Ahmad, Shirin gull, Izza Faiz ul Rasool, Maryam Ilyas, and Miral Javed
12.1 Introduction 153
12.2 Botanical History of Lichens 154
12.3 Classification of Lichen 154
12.4 Source and Formation of Lichen 156
12.5 Antioxidant Property 157
12.6 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Activity in Lichens 158
12.7 Antioxidant Activity in Parmelia sulcata, Lasallia pustulata, Hypogymnia physodes 161
12.8 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Behavior in Cetraria islandica 161
12.9 Techniques Used to Determine the Antioxidant Activities in Lichens 162
12.10 Conclusion 163
13 Antimicrobial Activities of Lichens 169
Muhammad Zeeshan Ahmed, Tazeen Rao, Nihad Ashraf Khan, Muneeba Aslam, and Yunita Sari Pane
13.1 Introduction 169
13.2 Antimicrobial Compounds of Lichen 170
13.3 Lichen Species Having Antimicrobial Properties 175
13.4 Antibacterial Properties 180
13.5 Antifungal Properties 183
13.6 Conclusion 188
14 Lichens: A Source of Anticancer Drugs 193
Ari Satia Nugraha, Thi Hai Yen Lam, Hendris Wongso, Lilla Nur Firli, and Paul A. Keller
14.1 Introduction 193
14.2 Lichen Extracts with Anticancer Activities 195
14.3 Lichen Compounds with Anticancer Activities 195
14.4 Anticancer of Lichen in Animal Model 220
14.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective 223
15 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of Parmelia, Cetraria, Cladonia, and Usnea 231
Varsha Sharma and Alka Rajput
15.1 Introduction 231
15.2 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Parmelia 233
15.3 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Cetraria 238
15.4 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Cladonia 238
15.5 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Usnea 243
15.6 Conclusion 249
16 Food Values of Lichen 261
Ashoke Kumar Das, Subrata Sarkar, Lily Devi, Chatna Hasnu, and Saurabh Bhattacharjee
16.1 Introduction 261
16.2 Historical Background 262
16.3 Lichen as Food for Human 263
16.4 Lichen as Spices and Flavor Enhancer 264
16.5 Lichens as Beverage 267
16.6 Lichens as Feed 268
16.7 Conclusion 269
17 Lichen as a Raw Material in Perfumery and Cosmetic Industries 275
Shahnaz Alom, Farak Ali, Bibhuti Busan Kakoti, Sandipan Choudhury, and Abdul Baquee Ahmed
17.1 Introduction 275
17.2 Historical Background of Lichens Used in Perfume Industry 276
17.3 Commercially Viable Lichen Species in Perfumery and Cosmetic Industries 277
17.4 Lichen as Perfume and its Chemistry 281
17.5 Conclusion 285
18 Lichen as Bio Indicators 289
Tridip Boruah, Himasri Devi, and Shilpa Sarkar
18.1 Introduction 289
18.2 Effective Biomonitoring of Lichen Species 290
18.3 Methods of Lichen Biomonitoring 292
18.4 Lichen as Indicator to Air Pollution 294
18.5 Lichen as Heavy Metal Indicator 296
18.6 Lichen as Indicator to Toxic Material 300
18.7 Conclusion 301
19 Lichen Based Nanoparticles 305
Swati Gajbhiye and Sanjay J. Dhoble
19.1 Introduction 305
19.2 Lichen Based Nanoparticles and Their Application 307
19.3 Biocompatibility of Lichen Based Nanoparticle 311
19.4 Biosynthesis of Lichen-Based Nanoparticles 312
19.5 Future Prospects and Conclusions 320
References 321
Index 325
