Trauma bonding, the emotional attachment victims develop toward their abusers or captors, has been repeatedly observed in victims of interpersonal crimes - yet little is known about its formation, persistence, and positive resolution in survivors.
Trauma Bonding and Interpersonal Crimes provides a timely review of existing theoretical conceptualizations and research findings on trauma bonding in relation to various forms of interpersonal crimes, including human trafficking, intimate partner violence, child sexual abuse, cults, kidnapping, gang violence, and terrorism.
With an accessible and reader-friendly style, lead author Joan A. Reid examines the concept of trauma bonding while offering insights into the consequences of how the phenomenon is framed in the public discourse and the professional sectors. Twelve chapters investigate key topics ranging from methodological issues and research limitations to current debates on victimology within academic disciplines such as criminology, psychology, social work, sociology, and public health.
Providing a holistic approach to the subject, Trauma Bonding and Interpersonal Crimes: - Highlights the complexities of intervention and treatment for trauma survivors and clinicians- Explores the implications for policy related to trauma bonding- Recommends potential avenues for integrated theory and research- Features case studies that combine individual examples and evidence-based research- Includes definitions of terms, critical thinking questions, and further readings in each chapter
Part of Wiley’s Psycho-Criminology of Crime, Mental Health, and the Law series, Trauma Bonding and Interpersonal Crimesis an invaluable resource for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students, researchers, policymakers, and practitioners in areas related to victims of human trafficking, intimate partner violence, and child sexual abuse.
Table of Contents
Foreword xi
Preface xiii
About the Author xv
Notes on Contributors xvii
1 Introduction to Trauma Bonding 1
Joan A. Reid
Book Overview 1
A Survivor’s Voice 2
Terminology and Contexts 4
Outline of the Following Chapters 5
References 9
2 General Theories of Trauma Bonding 11
Joan A. Reid and Sarah M. Gardy
Overview 11
Reports from Survivors and Practitioners 12
Psychological Theories of Trauma Bonding 13
Attachment Theory and Trauma Bonding Theory 13
Cognitive Theory and Trauma Bonding 15
Evolutionary Theory and Trauma Bonding 16
Neurobiological Theories of Trauma Bonding 17
Conclusion 19
Suggestions for Further Reading 19
Discussion Questions 20
References 20
3 Measures of Trauma Bonding 23
Joan A. Reid
Introduction 23
Purpose of Psychological Measures and Screening Tools 24
Best Practices for Measure Development 25
Benefits of Trauma Bonding Measures 27
Validation of Available Measures of Trauma Bonding 28
The Stockholm Syndrome Scale 28
Index of Post-Traumatic Stress 31
Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 32
Conclusion 32
Suggestions for Further Reading 33
Discussion Questions 33
References 34
4 Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 37
Joan A. Reid
Introduction 37
Case Studies 39
Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence 39
What Is Intimate Partner Violence 39
The Function of Abuse in the Formation of Trauma Bonds 44
Review of Theoretical Concepts Related to IPV and Trauma Bonding 45
Review of Research Studies Investigating Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 47
Conclusion 49
Suggestions for Further Reading 49
Discussion Questions 50
References 50
5 Trauma Bonding and Childhood Sexual Abuse 55
Klejdis Bilali and Joan A. Reid
Introduction 55
Voices from the Field 56
Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Child Sexual Abuse 57
What Is Child Sexual Abuse? 57
Formation of Trauma Bonds in CSA Contexts 58
Unique Vulnerabilities of Children to Trauma Bonds 58
Child Sexual Grooming and Trauma Bonding 60
Intrafamilial versus Extrafamilial CSA and Trauma Bonds 61
Trauma Bonding and Intrafamilial CSA 62
Trauma Bonding and Extrafamilial CSA 64
Theoretical Conceptualizations of Trauma Bonding in the Context of CSA 67
Attachment Theory 67
Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome (CSAAS) 69
Gaps in Research 72
Conclusion 73
Suggestions for Further Reading 74
Discussion Questions 74
References 75
6 Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 81
Joan A. Reid
Introduction 81
Case Study 83
Subject Data 83
Exposure to Violence and Sexual Assault During Childhood 83
Coerced into Selling Sex 84
Batterer-Trafficker Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 84
Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 85
Case Summary 86
Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Human Trafficking 86
Trauma Bonding among Child and Adolescent Victims of Sex Trafficking 86
Childhood and Developmental Vulnerabilities Linked to Human Trafficking 86
Conditions of Trauma Bonding and Child Victims of Sex Trafficking 87
Trauma Bonding and Adult Victims of Sex Trafficking 89
Varied Pathways into Sex Trafficking for Adults 89
Legislative Barriers for Adult Victims of Human Trafficking 90
Complexities of Identifying Trauma Bonds in the Context of Adult Sex Trafficking 91
Trauma Bonds and Additional Forms of Human Trafficking 92
Conclusion 93
Suggestions for Further Reading 93
Discussion Questions 94
References 94
7 Trauma Bonding and Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 99
Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. Reid
Introduction 99
Case Study: Elizabeth Smart 100
Origins of the Term “Stockholm Syndrome” 101
Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 103
Elements and Conditions of Trauma Bonding in Kidnapping/ Hostage-Taking 103
Victim Characteristics and Trauma Bonding 105
Perpetrator Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 107
Authority Response 109
Unraveling a Trauma Bond 111
Conclusion 114
Suggestions for Further Reading and Viewing 115
Discussion Questions 115
References 116
8 Trauma Bonding and Cults 121
Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. Reid
Introduction 121
Case Study: NXIVM 129
Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Cults 130
Unraveling Trauma Bonds Following Cult Exit 134
Conclusion 136
Suggestions for Further Reading, Viewing, and Listening 137
Discussion Questions 137
References 138
9 Trauma Bonding Among Gangs and Terrorist Groups 141
Sarah M. Gardy and Joan A. Reid
Introduction 141
Case Study 142
Subject Data 142
History of Loss and Abandonment 142
Coerced into Selling Sex 142
Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 143
Case Summary 144
The Formation of Trauma Bonds in Criminal Gangs 144
Gang Grooming and Trauma Bonding 145
Terror Groups and Trauma Bonding 146
Theory of Trauma Bonding Among Criminal Groups 147
Complexities of Trauma Bonding and Rehabilitation 148
Conclusion 150
Suggestions for Further Reading 151
Discussion Questions 151
References 152
10 Treatment Challenges Related to Trauma Bonding 157
Joan A. Reid
Introduction 157
Case Study 158
Case Presentation 158
Treatment Progress 159
Case Closure and Summary 159
Consequences of Interpersonal Violence 160
Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Disorders 160
Interpersonal Violence and Physical Injuries 162
Comorbidity and Diagnostic Overshadowing 163
Treatment Complexities Related to Trauma Bonding 164
Victim Identification 164
Concerns Regarding “Victim” Labeling 167
Separating from the Abuser 167
Client Safety and Self-Determination 168
Trauma-Informed Treatment Recommendations 169
Recommended Treatment Modalities 169
Trauma-Informed Practices for Trauma Bonding 170
Conclusion 171
Suggestions for Further Reading 172
Discussion Questions 173
References 173
11 Trauma Bonding and the Law 179
Emily D. Walker and Joan A. Reid
Introduction 179
Case Study: Patty Hearst 180
Subject Data 180
Background of the Case 180
Evidence of Trauma Bonding 181
Outcome of Case 181
Review of Case Law and Legislation Governing Expert Witness Testimony 181
The Frye Standard 182
The Daubert Standard 182
Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael 183
Federal Rules of Evidence 183
Current Use of Trauma Bonding in the Legal System 184
Trauma Bonding and Defense of Victim-Defendants 185
Trauma Bonding and Prosecution of Offenders 186
Trauma Bonding and Child Abuse Cases 187
Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 188
Barriers to the Use of Trauma Bonding as a Legal Strategy 188
Potential Applications of Trauma Bonding within the Legal System 190
Gaps in Research 191
Conclusion 192
Suggestions for Further Reading 192
Discussion Questions 193
References 193
12 A Way Forward 197
Joan A. Reid
Author Postlude 197
A Way-Forward SWOT Analysis 198
Results of the SWOT Analysis 199
Strengths 199
Weaknesses 202
Opportunities 203
Threats 203
Conclusion 204
References 205
Index 209
