There are few more requirements for human life more vital than clean water. Increasingly, however, both developed and developing countries are facing significant challenges to the maintenance of clean water sources, with population growth, industrial pollution, hazardous water contamination, and climate impact all taking a toll. With conventional methods of water purification proving less and less satisfactory, attention is increasingly turning to biopolymers extracted from natural sources, such as cellulose and chitosan, for their potential as renewable water treatment agents.
Biopolymers for Water Purification provides an overview of this growing field of study and its recent developments. It covers key techniques for synthesizing and modifying biopolymers, as well as their roles in treating water pollution and meeting targeted water quality requirements. The result is a detailed, comprehensive introduction to this field with potentially immense ramifications for long-term human life. It is the first book solely dedicated to the engineering of biopolymer-based membranes for water purification and promises to become a landmark in the field.
Biopolymers for Water Purification readers will also find: - Detailed treatment of important polymers including chitin, glycogen, kerating, and more- Discussion of ongoing challenges and directions for future research- Introduction to the history and characterization of biopolymers
Biopolymers for Water Purification is a useful reference for polymer chemists, water chemists, materials scientists, engineering scientists, and advanced postgraduate researchers in any of these or related fields.
Table of Contents
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
1 A Bibliometric Analysis on the Application of Biopolymers in Water Purification 1
Fabiula D.B. de Sousa and Júlia R. Gouveia
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Methodology 2
1.3 Results 2
1.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis 2
1.3.1.1 Sources 2
1.3.1.2 Authors, Affiliations, and Countries 3
1.3.1.3 Publications 6
1.3.1.4 Keywords 7
1.4 Conclusions 13
References 14
2 Extraction of Biopolymers from Nature and Their Characterization 25
Ayse Kalemtas, Gulsum Aydin, Aslıhan Kurt-Kızıldoğan, and Gulsum Topates
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Production of Animal-Derived Biopolymers 27
2.2.1 Polysaccharides 30
2.2.1.1 Hyaluronan (Hyaluronic Acid) 30
2.2.1.2 Chitin and Chitosan 31
2.2.1.3 Heparin 32
2.2.1.4 Glycogen 32
2.2.2 Proteins 33
2.2.2.1 Collagen 33
2.2.2.2 Gelatin 34
2.2.2.3 Keratin 35
2.2.3 Oils 36
2.2.3.1 Beeswax 36
2.3 Production of Bacteria-Derived Biopolymers 37
2.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 37
2.3.2 Bacterial Nanocellulose 42
2.3.3 Microbial Exopolysaccharides 45
2.4 Production of Plant-Derived Biopolymers 46
2.4.1 Cellulose 46
2.4.2 Starch 49
2.4.3 Lignin 50
2.4.4 Natural Rubber 52
2.5 Production of Algae-Derived Biopolymers 52
2.5.1 Alginate 54
2.5.2 Carrageenan 54
2.6 Characterization of Biopolymers 55
2.6.1 Optical Microscopy 56
2.6.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 56
2.6.3 Atomic Force Microscopy 57
2.6.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy 58
2.6.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis 60
2.6.6 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 62
2.6.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 63
2.6.8 Raman Spectroscopy 64
2.6.9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 65
2.6.10 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 67
2.6.11 X-ray Diffraction 68
2.6.12 CHNS-O Analysis 70
2.6.13 Mechanical Properties 70
2.7 Conclusion 71
References 72
3 Synthesis of Biopolymers and Characterization 91
Dilipkumar Pal and Supriyo Saha
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 Biopolymer: Source and Types 93
3.3 Biopolymers Used in the Treatment of Water Pollution: Synthesis and Characterization 94
3.3.1 Chitosan in the Treatment of Water Pollution 94
3.3.2 Selenide-Chitosan Microsphere in the Treatment of Water Pollution 94
3.3.3 Magnetic Phosphorylated Chitosan Composite in the Removal of Cobalt from Water 95
3.3.4 Magnetic Chitosan Bead Used in the Removal of Arsenic from Water 95
3.3.5 Chitosan-Clay Composite in the Treatment of Water Pollution 96
3.3.6 Chitosan Bead in the Removal of Molybdate Ion from Contaminated Ground Water 97
3.3.7 Chitosan Chloride-Graphene Oxide Composite Modified Quartz for the Treatment of Polluted Water 97
3.3.8 Fungal Chitosan in the Purification of Polluted Water 98
3.3.9 Gum Arabic in the Treatment of Organic Waste from Polluted Water 98
3.3.10 Gelatin-Beta Cyclodextrin Adsorbent in the Treatment of Wastewater 100
3.3.11 Gelatin Infused with Chitosan/Polyethyleneimine for the Treatment of Water Pollution 100
3.3.12 Kappa Carrageenan-Graphene Oxide Composite in the Treatment of Water Pollution 101
3.3.13 Lignin Polymeric Particles in the Removal of Virus from Water 102
3.3.14 Polyelectrolyte Layered Cellulose in the Removal of Bacteria from Water 102
3.3.15 Cellulose-Polyaniline-Silver Nanocomposite Fused Fiber in the Treatment of Water Pollution 103
3.3.16 Polycaprolactone-Nanocellulose Fiber in the Removal of Heavy Metals from Polluted Water 103
3.3.17 Cellulose-Metallothionein Biosorbent in the Treatment of Polluted Water 104
3.3.18 Magnetic-Carboxylated Cellulose/Starch Composite in the Treatment of Polluted Water 104
3.4 Conclusion and Future Scope 105
References 106
4 Importance of Water and Water Quality 109
Gaurav Awasthi, Manu Sharma, and Pawan Kumar
4.1 Introduction 109
4.1.1 Overview 109
4.1.2 Problems Related to Water 109
4.1.3 Solutions to Water Problem 112
4.2 Quality Measure for Water 113
4.2.1 Physical Contaminants 114
4.2.2 Biological Contaminants 114
4.2.3 Chemical Contaminants 115
4.2.3.1 Inorganic Contaminants 115
4.2.3.2 Organic Contaminants 116
4.2.3.3 Miscellaneous Contaminants 118
4.3 Role of Materials to Maintain Water Quality 118
4.3.1 Role of Biopolymers 119
4.4 Challenges and Future Perspective 123
4.5 Conclusion 125
References 125
5 Microcellulose Membranes for Water Purification 137
Turup P. Mohan and Krishnan Kanny
5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Water Purification 138
5.3 Filtration 139
5.4 Nanofiltration Process 139
5.5 Ultrafiltration Process 140
5.6 Reverse Osmosis 141
5.7 Reverse Osmosis versus Nanofiltration Membrane Process 142
5.8 Distillation 142
5.9 Chlorination 143
5.10 Polymer 144
5.11 Cellulose 145
5.12 Tissue Engineering 147
5.13 Barrier Properties 148
5.14 Membrane Technology 148
5.15 Membrane Filtration 149
5.16 Membrane Processing 150
5.17 Conclusions 151
Acknowledgment 152
References 152
6 Nanocellulose and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 157
Tian Mai, Pei-Lin Wang, Lei Chen, and Ming-Guo Ma
6.1 Introduction 157
6.2 Nanocellulose 158
6.3 Cellulose Nanofibrils and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 162
6.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 166
6.5 Bacterial Cellulose and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 169
6.6 Conclusions and Prospects 173
Acknowledgments 174
References 175
7 Lignin Polymers for Water Treatment 181
Júlia R. Gouveia and Fabiula D.B. de Sousa
7.1 Introduction 181
7.1.1 Lignin Structure 182
7.1.2 Lignin-Based Polymers for Water Treatment 183
7.1.2.1 Cationic Lignin-Based Polymers 183
7.1.2.2 Anionic Lignin-Based Polymers 185
7.1.2.3 Lignin-Based Polymers with Dual Action 189
7.1.2.4 Lignin-Based Thermoplastics for Water Treatment 191
7.1.3 Lignin-Based Nanoparticles for Water Treatment 195
7.1.4 Lignin-Based Membranes for Water Treatment 199
7.1.5 Lignin-Based Hydrogels for Water Treatment 202
7.2 Conclusions 204
List of Abbreviations 205
References 206
8 Use of Cellulosic Material and Natural Fibers in Wastewater Treatment 211
Gabriela Y. Romero-Zúñiga, Roberto Yáñez-Macías, Israel Sifuentes-Nieves, Zureima García-Hernández, Yucundo Mendoza-Tolentino, Pablo González-Morones, and Ernesto Hernández-Hernández
8.1 Introduction 211
8.2 Cellulosic Materials (CMs) and Natural Fibers (NFs) 212
8.2.1 Characterization 213
8.2.1.1 Chemical Composition 214
8.2.1.2 Morphology and Crystalline Structure 214
8.2.1.3 Physical-Mechanical Properties 218
8.2.1.4 Thermal Properties 220
8.3 Use of MCs and NFs in Water Purification 222
8.3.1 Heavy Metals Purification 224
8.3.2 Dyes/Colorants 225
8.3.3 Organic/Inorganic Material 227
8.3.4 Oils/Hydrocarbons 228
8.4 Mechanisms of Contaminant Absorption 231
8.4.1 Absorption of Heavy Metals and Industrial Dyes 232
8.4.2 Organic and Inorganic Compounds 233
8.4.3 Oils and Hydrocarbons 234
8.5 Adaptation and Modification of CMs and NFs for Application in Water Purification 235
8.5.1 Physical and Chemical Modifications 235
8.5.1.1 Esterification 237
8.5.1.2 Oxidation 237
8.5.1.3 Halogenation 237
8.5.1.4 Etherification 238
8.5.1.5 Graft Copolymerization 238
8.5.2 Morphological Characteristics 240
8.5.3 Devices Manufactured with CMs and NFs for Their Application in Water Purification 241
8.5.4 Characterization and Evolution of the Performance of CMs and NFs as Water Purifiers 242
8.6 Selection of the Stage of Water Treatment at Which the CMs and NFs Will Be Applied 243
8.7 Conclusion 244
References 245
9 Starch Polymers: Their Blends, Gels, and Composites Membranes for Water Purification 275
Alana G. de Souza, Rafaela R. Ferreira, Danrlei F. Alves, Derval S. Rosa, and Vania Z. Pinto
9.1 Introduction 275
9.2 Water Contamination 276
9.3 Water Treatment 278
9.4 Starch in Water Treatments 280
9.4.1 Contaminants Flocculation Using Starch 282
9.4.2 Starch Membranes 283
9.4.3 Starch Sorbents 285
9.4.4 Starch Nanoparticles and Nanocrystals 287
9.4.5 Hydrogels 288
9.4.6 Aerogels 290
9.5 Future Perspectives 291
References 292
10 Chitosan Polymers: Their Blends, IPNs, Gels, and Composites Membranes for Water Purification 301
Svetlana Jovanovic and Dejan Kepic
10.1 Chitosan - Structure and Properties 301
10.2 Chitosan with Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Water Purification 304
10.2.1 Chitosan-CNT Composites for Water Purification 306
10.2.2 Chitosan-G (GO) Composites for Water Purification 312
10.3 Chitosan Blends with Polymers for Water Purification 315
10.4 Chitosan IPN and Chitosan Gel for Water Purification 318
10.5 Chitosan Composite Membranes for Water Purification 322
10.6 Conclusion 324
Acknowledgments 324
References 325
11 The Production of Chitin, Nanochitin Polymers, and Their Composite Membranes for Water Purification 341
Jonas J. Perez Bravo, Laura D. Pilato, Gabriel I. Tovar, Federico J. Wolman, and Guillermo J. Copello
11.1 Introduction 341
11.2 Chitin Material Development 343
11.2.1 Chitin Nanoparticle and Nanostructured Composite Production 343
11.2.2 Processing of Chitin Nano-objects 344
11.2.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis 344
11.2.2.2 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation 345
11.2.2.3 Ionic Liquid 345
11.2.2.4 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) 346
11.2.2.5 High Pressure 346
11.2.2.6 Solvent Casting 347
11.2.3 Processing of Chitin Nanostructured Materials 347
11.2.3.1 Electrospinning 348
11.2.3.2 Ionic Liquid 348
11.2.3.3 CaCl 2 /Methanol 349
11.2.3.4 N,N-Dimethylacetamide(DMAc)/LiCl 349
11.2.3.5 NaOH/Urea 350
11.2.3.6 Solvent Casting 350
11.3 Chitin Materials for Pollutant Removal by Adsorption Processes 350
11.4 Chitin Materials for Pollutant Removal by Degradation Processes 358
11.5 Conclusions 361
References 362
12 Polysaccharide-Based Water Purifying Materials 371
Aldrin P. Bonto, Jose P. Bantang, Melvir Sucaldito, Michaela O.S. Lobregas, Francis M. dela Rosa, Feiyang Wang, and Cédric Delattre
12.1 Introduction 371
12.2 Starch, Its Functional Derivatives, and Composites for Water Purification Process 372
12.2.1 Chemically Modified Starch by Regiochemical Functionalization and Grafting for Water Treatment and Purification 372
12.2.2 Modified Starch Composites for Water Purification 377
12.2.3 Alternative Approaches in Improving Starch for Water Treatment 378
12.3 Chitosan 379
12.3.1 Chemical Modification of Chitosan 380
12.3.2 Chitosan-Based Composites for Water Purification 383
12.4 Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharides 388
12.4.1 Chemical Modification of Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharides 391
12.4.2 Seaweed-Derived Polysaccharide Composites 394
12.5 Pectin and Gum Polysaccharides 395
12.5.1 Chemically Modified Pectin and Gum Polysaccharides 397
12.5.2 Pectin/Gum Polysaccharide Gum Composites 401
12.6 Conclusions and Future Research Outlooks 403
List of Abbreviations 403
References 404
13 Biocatalytic Membrane for Seawater Purification 421
Wenxiang Zhang, Mingming Hu, Shaoqiang Nie, and Tugui Yuan
13.1 Introduction 421
13.2 Types and Properties of Enzymes 423
13.2.1 Laccase 423
13.2.2 Tyrosinase 423
13.2.3 Catalase 424
13.3 Preparation Method of Biocatalytic Membrane 424
13.3.1 Entrapment Method 424
13.3.2 Cross-linking Method 425
13.3.3 Covalent Bonding 425
13.3.4 Physical Adsorption Method 426
13.4 Application of Biocatalytic Membrane 426
13.4.1 Agricultural Food 426
13.4.2 The Medicine Application 427
13.4.3 Seawater Treatment 427
13.5 Challenges and Applications of Biocatalytic Membrane 429
13.5.1 Application of Dopamine in Membrane Modification and Enzyme Immobilization 429
13.5.1.1 Dopamine Properties 429
13.5.2 Application of Dopamine in Membrane Modification 430
13.5.2.1 Membrane Hydrophilicity Enhancement 431
13.5.2.2 The Membrane Antifouling Ability Improvement 431
13.5.3 Application of Dopamine in Enzyme Immobilization 431
13.5.3.1 Dopamine Used in Immobilization of Laccase 432
13.5.4 Application of Dopamine for Alcohol Dehydrogenase Immobilization 432
13.5.5 Opportunities and Challenges 434
13.6 Conclusions 434
Acknowledgments 434
References 434
14 Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles for Water Purification 439
Hebatullah H. Farghal, Marianne Nebsen, Amani Mostafa, and Mayyada M.H. El-Sayed
14.1 Introduction 439
14.2 Synthesis of the Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles 440
14.2.1 Biopolymer-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 440
14.2.2 Biopolymer-Coated Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 442
14.3 Characterization of Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles 443
14.3.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis 443
14.3.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 444
14.4 Biopolymer-Coated Nanoparticles in Water Treatment 444
14.4.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 444
14.4.2 Removal of Dyes 447
14.4.3 Removal of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) 449
14.5 Conclusion 457
Abbreviations 458
References 459
15 Modification of Cellulose for Preparing Hydrogels and Removing Metals in Contaminated Water 465
Jéssica S. Rodrigues, André M. Senna, and Vagner R. Botaro
15.1 Introduction 465
15.2 Modification of Cellulose for Preparing Hydrogels 466
15.2.1 N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) System 466
15.2.2 Ionic Liquids (ILs) System 467
15.2.3 Alkali/Urea or Thiourea Aqueous Systems 467
15.2.4 Bacterial Cellulose (BC) Hydrogels 467
15.3 Hydrogels Derived from Cellulose Acetate as a Source of Raw Material 469
15.4 The Diversity of Applications 474
15.4.1 Removing Metals and Radioactive Compounds from Contaminated Water 477
15.4.2 Removal of Organic Contaminants, Oils, and Dyes from Contaminated Water 478
15.4.3 New Applications Involving Hydrogels in Evaporators and Hydrogen Production 480
15.5 Final Consideration 481
References 482
Index 489
