Nuclear Physics 2 explores the applications of various radioisotopes for dating and nuclear medicine imaging. It introduces the theoretical and experimental facts from the observation of the red shift in the spectrum of galaxies (1913), and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (1965) that led to the validation of the Big Bang model, through which all known chemical elements are created via nucleosynthesis processes.
This introduction is followed by a description of the nuclear reactions involved in primordial, stellar, and explosive. The principles of carbon-14, potassium-argon, uranium-thorium and uranium-protactinium dating, along with the principles of lead-210, caesium-137 and beryllium-7 radiochronometers applied to dating, are also described.
An overview of the birth of nuclear medicine is given, from the first use of radioisotopes as tracers in plant biology in 1913, to the development of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) in 1975. The method of synthesis of radiopharmaceuticals, quality control of radiopharmaceuticals and the experimental methods of the determination of radiochemical purity are presented. The description of the principles of PET and Single-Photon Emission Tomography (SPECT), the presentation of the different radioisotopes used in TEMPS and PET, as well as the presentation of the main scintigraphies and their uses in nuclear medicine conclude the topics studied.
Table of Contents
Preface ix
Chapter 1 A Description of the Big Bang Model 1
1.1 Red-shift phenomenon in the spectrum of stars and galaxies 2
1.1.1 Doppler effect 2
1.1.2 Doppler--Fizeau effect 5
1.1.3 Doppler shift expression 9
1.2 Theoretical and experimental facts leading to the validation of the Big Bang model 13
1.2.1 From redshift observation to the "primitive atom" hypothesis 13
1.2.2 From Hubble observations to the discovery of the cosmic microwave background 14
1.3 Brief description of the chronology of the universe's evolution after the Big Bang 19
1.3.1 From singularity to the era of inflation 20
1.3.2 From baryogenesis to primordial nucleosynthesis 26
1.3.3 From the dark age of the universe to the radiative era 27
1.3.4 Star formation 28
Chapter 2 The Nucleosynthesis Process 33
2.1 Nucleosynthesis 34
2.1.1 Notion of chemical elements 34
2.1.2 Definition, different nucleosynthesis processes 35
2.1.3 Primordial nucleosynthesis 36
2.1.4 Stellar nucleosynthesis 42
2.1.5 Explosive nucleosynthesis 49
2.2 Other important nucleus-forming processes, radionuclides in the environment 53
2.2.1 Triple-alpha reaction, Hoyle state 53
2.2.2 Formation process of compound nuclei, resonance states 55
2.2.3 CNO (Carbon--Nitrogen--Oxygen) cycle 56
2.2.4 Bethe--Weizsäcker cycle 58
2.2.5 Natural and artificial radionuclides in the environment 61
Chapter 3 Radiochronometer Applications in Dating 63
3.1 Carbon-14 dating 64
3.1.1 A brief history of radiocarbon-14 dating 64
3.1.2 Cosmogenic isotopes: the case of carbon-14 66
3.1.3 Radiocarbon-14 in the biosphere 66
3.1.4 Principle of 14C dating 67
3.1.5 Age correction, radiocarbon age and calendar age 71
3.1.6 Calibrating radiocarbon ages: reasons for calibration? How to calibrate? 73
3.2 Potassium--argon (K--Ar) dating 80
3.2.1 Principle of dating 80
3.2.2 Basic assumptions for the K--Ar radiochronometer 81
3.2.3 Age equation 82
3.2.4 Atmospheric correction 85
3.2.5 Preparing samples for K--Ar dating 86
3.2.6 Experimental protocols for potassium and argon measurements 88
3.2.7 Overestimation of K--Ar ages 92
3.2.8 Description of the 40Ar/39Ar dating method 93
3.3 Lake dating using 210Pb, 137Cs and 7Be radiochronometers 94
3.3.1 Core drilling system 94
3.3.2 Lead-210 dating: CFCS, CRS and CIC models 96
3.3.3 Nuclear tests, Chernobyl accident 104
3.3.4 Cesium-137 dating 108
3.3.5 7Be dating 112
3.4 Uranium--thorium or uranium--lead dating 115
3.4.1 Method principle 115
3.5 Coral dating 117
3.5.1 Uranium-238 decay chain 117
3.5.2 Sampling, mechanical sample preparation 119
3.5.3 Chemical preparation of samples, X-ray diffraction analysis 120
3.5.4 Coral dating using the 238U/230Th and 235U/231Pa methods 121
3.5.5 Coral dating using the 233U/230Th method 122
3.5.6 Dating corals and speleothems using 234U/238U and 230Th/238U methods 125
3.6 File on dating archaeological objects 131
3.6.1 General points 131
3.6.2 Choice of dating method(s) 131
3.6.3 Authentication issues 132
3.6.4 Checking the validity of a date inscribed on the work 133
3.6.5 Tracing the history of a manuscript 133
Chapter 4 General Information on Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Nuclear Medicine Imaging 135
4.1 Nuclear medicine 136
4.1.1 Definition, objectives 136
4.1.2 The birth of nuclear medicine 137
4.1.3 Diseases diagnosed in nuclear medicine 142
4.2 Cancer 143
4.2.1 Cell organization in the organism 143
4.2.2 Evolution of cancer cells, tumor 145
4.2.3 Carcinogenesis, metastasis 146
4.2.4 Angiogenesis, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) 148
4.2.5 Tumor angiogenesis 150
4.2.6 Global cancer epidemiology data 152
4.2.7 Cancer control in Senegal 157
4.2.8 Recommendations from cancer organizations 158
4.3 General information on radiopharmaceuticals 160
4.3.1 Notion of radiopharmaceuticals, specific properties 160
4.3.2 Quality control of radiopharmaceuticals 161
4.3.3 Radiochemical purity, experimental determination methods 162
4.3.4 Thin-layer chromatography applied to the determination of radiochemical purity 164
4.3.5 Determination of radionuclidic purity 169
4.4 Nuclear medicine imaging techniques: PET and SPECT 170
4.4.1 Radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine imaging 170
4.4.2 Principle of positron emission tomography (PET) 172
4.4.3 PET scan 173
4.4.4 PET scan procedure 174
4.4.5 PET/CT examination 177
4.4.6 Principle of single-photon emission computed tomography 177
4.4.7 Main scintigraphies and their uses 178
4.5 Appendices on dementia diseases 179
4.5.1 Appendix 1 Alzheimer's disease 179
4.5.2 Appendix 2 Lewy body dementia 186
4.5.3 Appendix 3 Parkinson's disease 190
References 197
Index 217
