The 4Ds of Energy Transition
Enables readers to understand technology-driven approaches that address the challenges of today’s energy scenario and the shift towards sustainable energy transition
This book provides a comprehensive account of the characteristics of energy transition, covering the latest advancements, trends, and practices around the topic. It charts the path to global energy sustainability based on existing technology by focusing on the four dynamic approaches of decarbonization, decreasing use, decentralization, and digitalization, plus the important technical, economic, social and policy perspectives surrounding those approaches.
Each technology is demonstrated with an introduction and a set of specific chapters. The work appropriately incorporates up-to-date data, case studies, and comparative assessments to further aid in reader comprehension. Sample topics discussed within the work by key thinkers and researchers in the broader fields of energy include:
- Renewable energy and sustainable energy future
- Decarbonization in energy sector
- Hydrogen and fuel cells
- Electric mobility and sustainable transportation
- Energy conservation and management
- Distributed and off-grid generation, energy storage, and batteries
- Digitalization in energy sector; smart meters, smart grids, blockchain
This book is an ideal professional resource for engineers, academics, and policy makers working in areas related to the development of energy solutions.
Table of Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgement xvi
Foreword xvii
1 Introduction to the Four-Dimensional Energy Transition 1
Muhammad Asif
1.1 Energy: Resources and Conversions 1
1.2 Climate Change in Focus 3
1.3 The Unfolding Energy Transition 4
1.4 The Four Dimensions of the Twenty-First Century Energy Transition 6
1.4.1 Decarbonization 7
1.4.2 Decentralization 7
1.4.3 Digitalization 8
1.4.4 Decreasing Energy Use 8
1.5 Conclusions 8
References 9
Part I Decarbonization 11
2 Global Energy Transition and Experiences from China and Germany 13
Heiko Thomas and Bing Xue
2.1 Global Energy Transition 13
2.2 China 17
2.2.1 How to Achieve Carbon Neutrality Before 2060 and Keep the World’s Largest Economy Running 17
2.2.2 China as the World’s Leader in Renewable Installations 19
2.2.3 Particular Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions 20
2.3 Germany 23
2.3.1 Climate Action and GHG Emission Reduction Targets 23
2.3.2 System Requirements to Achieve the GHG Emission Reduction Goals 24
2.3.3 Potential for GHG Emission Reduction in the Building Sector 27
2.3.4 Underachieving in the Transport Sector 27
2.3.5 A New Emission Trading Scheme Specifically Tackles the Heating and Transport Sectors 29
2.4 Comparing Energy Transitions in China and Germany 30
2.4.1 Different Strategies and Boundary Conditions 30
2.4.2 Comparing the Mobility Sector 32
2.4.3 Policy Instruments and Implementation 33
2.5 Summary and Final Remarks 37
References 38
3 Decarbonization in the Energy Sector 41
Muhammad Asif
3.1 Decarbonization 41
3.2 Decarbonization Pathways 42
3.2.1 Renewable Energy 43
3.2.1.1 Solar Energy 43
3.2.1.2 Wind Power 44
3.2.1.3 Hydropower 44
3.2.2 Electric Mobility 44
3.2.3 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 45
3.2.4 Energy Storage 46
3.2.5 Energy Efficiency 46
3.2.6 Decarbonization of Fossil Fuel Sector 46
3.3 Decarbonization: Developments and Trends 47
References 48
4 Renewable Technologies: Applications and Trends 51
Muhammad Asif
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Overview of Renewable Technologies 52
4.2.1 Solar Energy 52
4.2.1.1 Solar PV 52
4.2.1.2 Solar Thermal Energy 54
4.2.2 Wind Power 57
4.2.3 Hydropower 58
4.2.3.1 Dam/Storage 59
4.2.3.2 Run-of-the-River 59
4.2.3.3 Pumped Storage 59
4.2.4 Biomass 60
4.2.5 Geothermal Energy 61
4.2.6 Wave and Tidal Power 62
4.3 Renewables Advancements and Trends 63
4.3.1 Market Growth 63
4.3.2 Economics 65
4.3.3 Technological Advancements 65
4.3.4 Power Density 67
4.3.5 Energy Storage 67
4.4 Conclusions 69
References 69
5 Fundamentals and Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 73
Bengt Sundén
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 Hydrogen - General 74
5.2.1 Production of Hydrogen 74
5.2.2 Storage of Hydrogen 75
5.2.3 Transportation of Hydrogen 76
5.2.4 Concerns About Hydrogen 76
5.2.5 Advantages of Hydrogen Energy 76
5.2.6 Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy 76
5.3 Basic Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics 77
5.4 Fuel Cells - Overview 78
5.4.1 Types of Fuel Cells 79
5.4.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) or Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFC) 83
5.4.2.1 Performance of a PEMFC 83
5.4.3 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 83
5.4.4 Comparison of PEMFCs and SOFCs 84
5.4.5 Overall Description of Basic Transport Processes and Operations of a Fuel Cell 85
5.4.5.1 Electrochemical Kinetics 85
5.4.5.2 Heat and Mass Transfer 85
5.4.5.3 Charge and Water Transport 86
5.4.5.4 Heat Generation 87
5.4.6 Modeling Approaches for Fuel Cells 87
5.4.6.1 Softwares 89
5.4.7 Fuel Cell Systems and Applications 90
5.4.7.1 Portable Power 90
5.4.7.2 Backup Power 91
5.4.7.3 Transportation 91
5.4.7.4 Stationary Power 92
5.4.7.5 Maritime Applications 93
5.4.7.6 Aerospace Applications 94
5.4.7.7 Aircraft Applications 95
5.4.8 Bottlenecks for Fuel Cells 95
5.5 Conclusions 97
Acknowledgments 97
Nomenclature 97
Abbreviations 98
References 99
6 Decarbonizing with Nuclear Power, Current Builds, and Future Trends 103
Hasliza Omar, Geordie Graetz, and Mark Ho
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 The Historic Cost of Nuclear Power 104
6.3 The Small Modular Reactor (SMR): Could Smaller Be Better? 109
6.3.1 New Nuclear Reactor in Town 109
6.3.2 Is It the Smaller the Better? 110
6.4 Evaluating the Economic Competitiveness of SMRs 113
6.4.1 Size Matters 113
6.4.2 Construction Time 113
6.4.3 Co-siting Economies 114
6.4.4 Learning Rates 115
6.4.5 The Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE): Is It a Reliable Measure? 118
6.4.6 The Overnight Capital Cost (OCC): SMRs vs. a Large Reactor 120
6.5 Nuclear Energy: Looking Beyond Its Perceived Reputation 123
6.5.1 Load-Following and Cogeneration 123
6.5.2 Industrial Heat (District and Process) 125
6.5.3 Hydrogen Production 127
6.5.4 Seawater Desalination 130
6.6 Western Nuclear Industry Trends 131
6.6.1 The United States 131
6.6.2 The United Kingdom 132
6.6.3 Canada 135
6.7 Conclusions 137
References 141
7 Decarbonization of the Fossil Fuel Sector 153
Tian Goh and Beng Wah Ang
7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Technologies for the Decarbonization of the Fossil Fuel Sector 154
7.2.1 Historical Developments 154
7.2.2 Hydrogen Economy 155
7.2.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 156
7.3 Recent Advancements and Potential 157
7.3.1 Carbon Capture and Storage 158
7.3.2 Carbon Capture and Utilization 158
7.4 Future Emission Scenarios and Challenges to Decarbonization 160
7.4.1 Application in Future Emission Scenarios 160
7.4.2 Challenges to Decarbonization 164
7.5 Controversies and Debates 167
7.5.1 Opposing Narratives 167
7.5.2 Public Perceptions 169
7.6 Conclusions 171
References 172
8 Electric Vehicle Adoption Dynamics on the Road to Deep Decarbonization 177
Emil Dimanchev, Davood Qorbani, and Magnus Korpås
8.1 Introduction 177
8.2 Current State of Electric Vehicles 178
8.2.1 Electric Vehicle Technology 178
8.2.2 Electric Vehicle Environmental Attributes 179
8.2.3 Competing Low-Carbon Vehicle Technologies 180
8.3 Contribution of Road Transport to Decarbonization Policy 181
8.3.1 State and Trends of CO2 Emissions from Transportation and Passenger Vehicles 181
8.3.2 Decarbonization of Transport 182
8.3.3 Decarbonization Pathways for Passenger Vehicles and the Role of Electric Vehicles 183
8.4 Dynamics of Vehicle Fleet Turnover 190
8.4.1 Illustrative Fleet Turnover Model 190
8.4.2 Implications of Fleet Turnover Dynamics for Meeting Decarbonization Targets 191
8.5 Electric Vehicle Policy 194
8.5.1 Case Study of Electric Vehicle Policy in Norway 195
8.6 Prospects for Electric Vehicle Technology and Economics 196
8.7 Conclusions 199
References 200
9 Integrated Energy System: A Low-Carbon Future Enabler 207
Pengfei Zhao, Chenghong Gu, Zhidong Cao, and Shuangqi Li
9.1 Paradigm Shift in Energy Systems 207
9.2 Key Technologies in Integrated Energy Systems 210
9.2.1 Conversion Technologies 211
9.2.1.1 Combined Heat and Power 211
9.2.1.2 Heat Pump and Gas Furnace 211
9.2.1.3 Power to Gas 211
9.2.1.4 Gas Storage 212
9.2.1.5 Battery Energy Storage Systems 212
9.2.2 Energy Hub Systems 213
9.2.3 Modeling of Integrated Energy Systems 214
9.3 Management of Integrated Energy Systems 215
9.3.1 Optimization Techniques for Integrated Energy Systems 215
9.3.1.1 Stochastic Optimization 215
9.3.1.2 Robust Optimization 215
9.3.1.3 Distributionally Robust Optimization 217
9.3.2 Supply Quality Issues 217
9.3.2.1 Voltage Issues 217
9.3.2.2 Gas Quality Issues 218
9.4 Volt-Pressure Optimization for Integrated Energy Systems 219
9.4.1 Research Gap 219
9.4.2 Problem Formulation 220
9.4.2.1 Day-Ahead Constraints of VPO 220
9.4.2.2 Real-Time Constraints of VPO 222
9.4.2.3 Objective Function of Two-Stage VPO 222
9.4.3 Results and Discussions 223
9.4.3.1 Studies on VVO 223
9.4.3.2 Studies on Economic Performance 227
9.4.3.3 Studies on Gas Quality Management 228
9.5 Conclusions 229
A Appendix: Nomenclature 230
A.1 Indices and Sets 230
A.2 Parameters 230
A.3 Variables and Functions 232
References 233
Part II Decreasing Use 239
10 Decreasing the Use of Energy for Sustainable Energy Transition 241
Muhammad Asif
10.1 Why Decrease the Use of Energy? 241
10.2 Energy Efficiency Approaches 243
10.2.1 Change of Attitude 243
10.2.2 Performance Enhancement 244
10.2.3 New Technologies 244
10.3 Scope of Energy Efficiency 244
References 245
11 Energy Conservation and Management in Buildings 247
Wahhaj Ahmed and Muhammad Asif
11.1 Energy and Environmental Footprint of Buildings 247
11.2 Energy-Efficiency Potential in Buildings 248
11.3 Energy-Efficient Design Strategies 250
11.3.1 Passive and Active Design Strategies 251
11.3.2 Energy Modeling to Design Energy-Efficient Strategies 251
11.4 Building Energy Retrofit 255
11.4.1 Building Energy-Retrofit Classifications 256
11.4.1.1 Pre- and Post-Retrofit Assessment Strategies 256
11.4.1.2 Number and Type of EEMs 257
11.4.1.3 Modeling and Design Approach 258
11.5 Sustainable Building Standards and Certification Systems 260
11.6 Conclusions 261
References 261
12 Methodologies for the Analysis of Energy Consumption in the Industrial Sector 267
Vincenzo Bianco
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 Overview of Basic Indexes for Energy Consumption Analysis 269
12.2.1 Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) 269
12.2.2 Energy Consumption Elasticity (ECE) 270
12.2.3 Energy Intensity (EI) 270
12.2.4 Linear Correlation Index (LCI) 271
12.2.5 Weather Adjusting Coefficient (WAC) 271
12.3 Decomposition Analysis of Energy Consumption 272
12.4 Case Study: The Italian Industrial Sector 274
12.4.1 Index-Based Analysis 274
12.4.2 Decomposition of Energy Consumption 276
12.5 Relationship Between Energy Efficiency and Energy Transition 283
12.6 Conclusions 284
References 285
Part III Decentralization 287
13 Decentralization in Energy Sector 289
Muhammad Asif
13.1 Introduction 289
13.2 Overview of Decentralized Generation Systems 290
13.2.1 Classification 290
13.2.2 Technologies 292
13.3 Decentralized and Centralized Generation - A Comparison 293
13.3.1 Advantages of Decentralized Generation 293
13.3.1.1 Cost-Effectiveness 293
13.3.1.2 Enhanced Energy Access 293
13.3.1.3 Environment Friendliness 294
13.3.1.4 Security 294
13.3.1.5 Reliability 294
13.3.1.6 Peak Shaving 294
13.3.1.7 Supply Resilience 294
13.3.1.8 New Business Streams 294
13.3.1.9 Other Benefits 295
13.3.2 Disadvantages of Decentralized Generation 295
13.3.2.1 Power Quality 295
13.3.2.2 Effect on Gird Stability 295
13.3.2.3 Energy Storage Requirement 295
13.3.2.4 Institutional Resistance 295
13.4 Developments and Trends 295
References 296
14 Decentralizing the Electricity Infrastructure: What Is Economically Viable? 299
Moritz Vogel, Marion Wingenbach, and Dierk Bauknecht
14.1 Introduction 299
14.2 Decentralization of Electricity Systems 300
14.3 Technological Dimensions of Decentralization 301
14.3.1 Grid Level of Power Plants 302
14.3.2 Regional Distribution of Power Plants 302
14.3.3 Grid Level of Flexibility Options 302
14.3.4 Level of Optimization 303
14.4 Decentralization: Costs and Benefits 303
14.4.1 Grid Level of Power Plants 304
14.4.2 Regional Distribution of Power Plants 305
14.4.3 Grid Level of Flexibility Options 306
14.4.4 Level of Optimization 307
14.5 Germany’s Decentralization Experience: A Case Study 310
14.5.1 System Cost 310
14.5.2 Grid Expansion 314
14.5.3 Key Findings 316
14.6 How Far Should Decentralization Go? 317
14.6.1 Grid Level of Power Plants 317
14.6.2 Regional Distribution of Power Plants 317
14.6.3 Grid Level of Flexibility Options 319
14.6.4 Level of Optimization 319
14.7 Conclusions 320
References 320
15 Governing Decentralized Electricity: Taking a Participatory Turn 325
Marie Claire Brisbois
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 How Is Decentralization Affecting Traditional Modes of Electricity Governance? 326
15.2.1 Sticking Points for Shifting to Decentralized Governance 327
15.3 What Kinds of Governance Does Decentralization Require? 328
15.3.1 Security 328
15.3.2 Affordability 329
15.3.3 Sustainability 331
15.4 What Do We Know About Decentralized Governance from Other Spheres? 332
15.4.1 Nested, Multilevel Governance of Common Pool Resources 333
15.4.2 Key Components of Common Pool Resource Governance 334
15.4.2.1 Roles and Responsibilities 334
15.4.2.2 Policy Coherence 335
15.4.2.3 Capacity Development 336
15.4.2.4 Transparent and Open Data 336
15.4.2.5 Appropriate Regulations 337
15.4.2.6 Stakeholder Participation 338
15.5 Moving Toward a Decentralized Governance System 339
15.5.1 Phase One 339
15.5.2 Phase Two 340
15.5.3 Phase Three 341
15.6 Conclusions 341
References 342
Part IV Digitalization 347
16 Digitalization in Energy Sector 349
Muhammad Asif
16.1 Introduction 349
16.2 Overview of Digital Technologies 350
16.2.1 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 350
16.2.2 Blockchain 351
16.2.3 Robotics and Automated Technologies 351
16.2.4 Internet of Things 351
16.2.5 Big Data and Data Analytics 352
16.3 Digitalization: Prospects and Challenges 352
References 354
17 Smart Grids and Smart Metering 357
Haroon Farooq, Waqas Ali, and Intisar A. Sajjad
17.1 Introduction 357
17.2 Grid Modernization and Its Need in the Twenty-First Century 358
17.3 Smart Grid 360
17.4 Smart Grid vs. Traditional Grid 362
17.5 Smart Grid Composition and Architecture 362
17.6 Smart Grid Technologies 365
17.7 Smart Metering 367
17.8 Role of Smart Metering in Smart Grid 369
17.9 Key Challenges and the Future of Smart Grid 370
17.10 Implementation Benefits and Positive Impacts 372
17.11 Worldwide Development and Deployment 373
17.12 Conclusions 375
References 376
18 Blockchain in Energy 381
Bernd Teufel and Anton Sentic
18.1 Transformation of the Electricity Market and an Emerging Technology 381
18.2 Blockchain in the Energy Sector 382
18.2.1 Defining Blockchain 383
18.2.2 Utilizing Blockchain in Energy Systems 385
18.2.3 Case Examples for Blockchain Energy 386
18.2.4 Utilization of Blockchain Energy: Introducing an Innovation Perspective 387
18.3 Blockchain as a (Disruptive) Innovation in Energy Transitions 389
18.3.1 Transition Studies, Regimes, and Niche Innovations 389
18.3.2 Blockchain Technologies Between Niche Innovation and the Socio-Technical System 390
18.4 Conclusions and Venues for Further Inquiry 392
Acknowledgment 394
References 394
Epilogue 399
Fereidoon Sioshansi
Index 405
