Medicinal plants contain a variety of bioactive compounds, (also referred to as phytochemicals). in the leaves, stems, flowers and fruits. This book covers these bioactive compounds, their available sources, how the bioactive molecules are isolated from the plants, the biochemistry, structural composition and potential biological activities. Also discussed are the pharmacological aspects of medicinal plants, phytochemistry and biological activities of different natural products, ethnobotany and medicinal properties, as well as a novel dietary approach for various disease management and therapeutic potential. The importance of phytopharmaceutical of plants and potential applications in the food and pharma industries is highlighted.
Table of Contents
Preface xvii
1 A Great Challenge on the Reproducibility of Therapeutic Results of Phytopharmaceuticals 1
Idha Kusumawati
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Common Challenges in Phytopharmaceuticals 2
1.2.1 Authentication of Raw Material 3
1.2.2 Variability of Chemical Content in Raw Material 4
1.2.2.1 Intrinsic Factor 5
1.2.2.2 Extrinsic Factor 5
1.2.2.3 Harvesting 6
1.2.2.4 Post-Harvesting Process 7
1.2.2.5 Storage 8
1.2.2.6 Complex Mixture of the Pharmacologically Active Constituent 8
1.3 Strategy to Guarantee the Quality of Phytopharmaceutical 10
1.3.1 Marker Compound Concept 11
1.3.2 Phytoequivalence Concept 13
1.4 Conclusion 15
Acknowledgment 15
References 15
2 Ibero-American Network as a Collaborative Strategy to Provide Tools or the Development of Phytopharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals 19
Pilar Buera, Cecilia Abirached, Liliana Alamilla-Beltrán, Verónica María Busch, Cristina Isabel dos Santos, Abel Farroni, Leonardo Cristian Favre, Aldo Fernández-Varela, Fabiano Freire-Costa, Julieta Gabilondo, Micaela Galante, María Eugenia Hidalgo, Romina Ingrassia, Milagros López Hiriart, Alejandra Medrano, Oscar Micheloni, Miguel Navarro Alarcón, Luis Panizzolo, Silvia del Carmen Pereyra-Castro, Viridiana Pérez-Pérez, Carla Patricia Plazola-Jacinto, Patricia Risso, Paz Robert-Canales, Analía Rodriguez, Silvio David Rodríguez, Erick Rojas-Balcazar, José Angel Rufián Henares and Franco Emanuel Vasile
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Some Unexplored Botanicals From Ibero-America as Potential Sources of Bioactive Compounds 21
2.2.1 South America Regions: Tropical Savanna and Atlantic Forest 21
2.2.2 Central South America Semiarid Regions 22
2.2.3 Northern South America, Central America and Caribbean 23
2.2.4 Exploitation of Undervalued Resources From Fabaceae Family to Obtain Hydrocolloids 24
2.2.4.1 Gums From Native Fabaceae Family Seeds 24
2.2.4.2 Gums From Fabaceae Family Exudates 26
2.2.5 Healthy Fatty Acid Sources From Ibero America 27
2.2.6 Bioactives From Agroindustrial Wastes 27
2.2.6.1 Commercial Edible Flowers 27
2.2.6.2 Coffee Grounds as Source of Prebiotics 29
2.2.6.3 Healthy Compounds From Olive Oil Wastes 30
2.3 Technologies for Obtaining Stable Natural Bioactive Extracts 31
2.3.1 Extraction Techniques 31
2.3.2 In Vitro Tests for Assessing Antioxidant and Antiglycant Activities 32
2.3.2.1 Antioxidant Activity 33
2.3.2.2 Antiglycant Agents Detection 36
2.3.3 Biocompounds Conservation and Controlled Delivery Systems 37
2.3.3.1 Spray Drying 38
2.3.3.2 Coacervation 39
2.3.3.3 Management of Protein-Hydrocolloid Interactions for Designing Bioactive Delivery Systems 41
2.4 Multivariate Analysis for Phytopharmaceuticals Development 42
2.5 Conclusions 45
Acknowledgements 46
Abbreviations 46
References 47
3 Use of Hydrodistillation as a Green Technology to Obtain Essential Oils From Several Medicinal Plants Belonging to Lamiaceae (Mint) Family 59
Karamatollah Rezaei, Nahal Bashiri Hashemi and Samar Sahraee
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Essential Oils and Applied Extraction Techniques 61
3.3 Use of Hydrodistillation to Bridge the Nature With Novel Green Applications 62
3.4 Specific Gravities of Essential Oils as Related to Their Chemical Compositions 67
3.5 Use of Microwave-Assisted Hydrodistillation in the Extraction of Essential Oils From Ziziphora (A Case Study) 68
3.5.1 Extraction Yield 68
3.5.2 Microstructure of Ziziphora Leaves 68
3.5.3 Physical Properties of Essential Oil 68
3.5.4 Differences in the Chemical Compositions 68
3.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 69
Acknowledgements 72
References 72
4 The Hidden Danger in Phytopharmaceuticals: Adulteration 77
Miray Ege
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 What is Adulteration in Plants and Phytopharmaceuticals? 78
4.3 Standardization and Quality in Medicinal Plants and Phytopharmaceuticals 79
4.3.1 Standardization Problems in Identified Plants 81
4.3.1.1 Inter-Species or Species Variation 81
4.3.1.2 Environmental Factors 82
4.3.1.3 Harvesting Time 82
4.3.1.4 Plant Part Used 82
4.3.1.5 Post-Harvest Factors 83
4.3.2 Quality and Standardization Problems 83
4.3.3 Standardization Parameters and Content Analysis on Medicinal Plants and Phytopharmaceuticals 84
4.3.3.1 Phytochemical Analyses for Phytopharmaceuticals and Medicinal Plants 85
4.3.3.2 Analysis of Extracts and Isolated Compounds 85
4.3.3.3 Standardization Parameters (Monograph Parameters) 86
4.4 Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals With Synthetic Drugs 87
4.4.1 Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals Used for Slimming 88
4.4.2 Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals With Aphrodisiac Effect 89
4.4.3 Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals Used in Rheumatic Diseases and as Antiinflammatory Drugs 90
4.4.4 Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals Used for Regulate Blood Sugar 90
4.4.5 Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals Used for Blood Pressure Regulating 90
4.5 How to Analyze Adulteration in Phytopharmaceuticals? 90
4.5.1 TLC and HPTLC 92
4.5.2 HPLC and GC 92
4.5.3 H NMR 93
4.6 Future Perspective for Phytopharmaceuticals 94
4.7 Conclusion 94
References 95
5 Medicinal Plants from the Balkan Peninsula - From Traditional To Modern Pharmacy/Medicine 99
Aleksandra Cvetanović, Alena Stupar, Mirjana Petronijević and Zoran Zeković
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Calendula officinalis L. 101
5.2.1 Chemical Composition of C. officinalis 105
5.2.2 Traditional Use vs. Modern Application of C. officinalis 105
5.3 Taraxacum officinale 108
5.3.1 Chemical Composition of T. officinale 108
5.3.2 Traditional Use vs. Modern Application of T. officinale 110
5.4 Hypericum perforatum L. 112
5.4.1 Chemical Composition of Hypericum perforatum 113
5.4.2 Traditional Use vs. Modern Application of H. perforatum 114
5.5 Conclusion 116
Acknowledgement 116
List of Abbreviations 116
References 117
6 Plant-Based Peptides With Biological Properties 123
Jessika Gonçalves dos Santos Aguilar
6.1 Introduction 123
6.2 Production of Plant-Based Peptides 124
6.3 Bioactive Plant-Based Peptides 126
6.3.1 Antimicrobial 126
6.3.2 Antioxidant 127
6.3.3 Antihypertensive 128
6.3.4 Antithrombotic 128
6.3.5 Other Activities 129
6.4 Conclusion 129
List of Abbreviations 130
References 130
7 Potential of Flavonoids as Anticancer Drugs 135
Pradeep Kumar, Jyoti Dixit, Rajesh Saini, Pooja Verma, Awadhesh Kumar Mishra and Kavindra NathTiwari
7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 Causes of Cancer 144
7.3 Synthetic and Natural Chemotherapeutic Drugs 145
7.4 Biosynthesis of Flavonoids 148
7.5 Flavonoid Chemistry 149
7.5.1 Flavonols 150
7.5.1.1 Quercetin 150
7.5.1.2 Kaemferol 150
7.5.2 Flavones 151
7.5.2.1 Apigenin 152
7.5.3 Flavanones 152
7.5.4 Isoflavonoids 153
7.5.5 Anthocyanins 154
7.6 Mode of Action of Plant-Based Anticancer Compounds 155
7.7 Conclusions 155
References 156
8 Phytomedicine Against Infectious Diseases 161
Biswajyoti Sarkar, Sondipon Chakraborty and Chiranjib Pal
8.1 Introduction 161
8.1.1 What are the Phytomedicines? 162
8.1.2 A Brief Synopsis of the History of Phytomedicine Uses,
in Relation With Geographical Regions and Sources 162
8.1.3 The Relevance of Application of Phytomedicine in Today’s World 163
8.2 Names, Sources, and Types of Phytomedicines in Use in the Modern World 164
8.3 Chemical Moieties Responsible for the Inhibitory Activity of Different Phytomedicines on Different Organisms 166
8.4 Phytomedicines in Use Against Bacterial, Viral and Protozoan Diseases 167
8.4.1 In Clinical Use 167
8.4.2 In Experimental Therapeutics 168
8.5 Conclusion 169
References 170
9 Herbal Traditional Remedies for Male Infertility 173
Shalaka Sudhir Ramgir, Abilash Valsala Gopalakrishnan and Selvaraj Mohana Roopan
9.1 Introduction 173
9.2 Application of Indian Traditional Medicine (Ayurveda) for Male Infertility 174
9.3 The Significant Role of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Male Infertility Management 178
9.4 Iranian/Persian Traditional Medicine (ITM) Restores Male Fertility 181
9.5 Traditional Korean Medicine and Male Infertility 182
9.6 Traditional African Medicine in the Treatment of Male Infertility 183
9.7 Conclusion 184
References 184
10 The Therapeutic Applications of Phytopharmaceuticals in Dentistry 191
Bilal Ege and Miray Ege
10.1 Introduction 191
10.2 Historical Development of Phytopharmaceuticals in Dentistry 193
10.3 Phytochemical Contents of Plants 194
10.3.1 Alkaloids 194
10.3.2 Phenolic Compounds 195
10.3.3 Polyphenols 195
10.3.4 Terpenoids 195
10.4 Dental Materials of Plant Origin 195
10.5 Phytotherapeutics in Dentistry 196
10.5.1 Usage in Tooth Decays 196
10.5.1.1 Effective Factors in Caries Formation 197
10.5.1.2 Anticariogenic Plants Effective in Preventing Dental Caries 198
10.5.2 Usage in Oral Mucosal Lesions 202
10.5.3 Usage in Endodontic Treatment 204
10.5.3.1 Phytopharmaceutical Irrigants 205
10.5.3.2 Phytopharmaceutical Intracanal Drugs 206
10.5.4 Usage in Dental Traumatology 207
10.5.5 Usage in Oral Surgery 208
10.5.6 Usage in Periodontal Diseases 209
10.5.7 Usage in Treatment of Halitosis 213
10.6 Conclusion 215
References 215
11 Prevention of Vascular Endothelial Dysfunction by Polyphenols: Role in Cardiovascular Disease Prevention 223
Kazuo Yamagata
11.1 Introduction 223
11.2 Endothelial Dysfunction and Cardiovascular Disease 225
11.2.1 Production and Elimination of Reactive Oxygen Species in Endothelial Cells 225
11.2.2 Regulation of Nitric Oxide Bioavailability by Oxidative Stress 227
11.3 Inflammation and Endothelial Cell Dysfunction Associated With Arteriosclerosis in Endothelial Cells 228
11.4 Preventive Effects of Resveratrol on Endothelial Dysfunction 230
11.5 Preventive Effects of EGCG on Endothelial Dysfunction 233
11.6 Preventive Effects of Quercetin on Endothelial Dysfunction 235
11.7 Preventive Effects of Chlorogenic Acid on Endothelial Dysfunction 237
11.8 Conclusion 238
References 238
12 Quercetin-Rebuttal Behavior in Male Reproductive Potential 247
Kaviyarasi Renu, AbilashValsala Gopalakrishnan and Selvaraj Mohana Roopan
12.1 Introduction 247
12.2 Quercetin as Antioxidants 248
12.3 Quercetin, In Vitro Antioxidant Activity 248
12.3.1 Quercetin, Direct Scavenging of ROS and Activates Antioxidant Enzymes 248
12.3.2 Metal Chelating Activity of Quercetin 249
12.3.3 Inhibition of Oxides by Quercetin 249
12.3.4 Reduction of α-Tocopheryl Radicals by Quercetin 250
12.3.5 Elevated Pro-Oxidant Properties of Low Molecular Antioxidants 250
12.4 Quercetin Metabolism With In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant Activity of its Metabolites 250
12.5 Quercetin as Pro-Oxidant 250
12.5.1 Quercetin Pro-Oxidant Function 250
12.6 Quercetin, Phenoxyl Radicals Oxidation 251
12.7 Impairment of Respiration of Mitochondria by Quercetin 251
12.8 Quercetin, Low Molecular Weight Antioxidant Oxidation 251
12.9 Quercetin Damage Directly DNA 252
12.10 Spermatogenesis and Oxidative Stress 252
12.11 Quercetin and Male Reproduction 252
12.12 Amelioration of Male Reproductive Dysfunction by Quercetin 253
12.13 Contradictory Reports of Quercetin With Respect to Male Reproductive Potential 254
12.14 Conclusion 254
References 254
13 Traditional Uses and Bioactivities of Common Rubus Species With Reference to Cancer: A Mini-Review 259
Blassan P. George and Heidi Abrahamse
13.1 Introduction 259
13.2 Traditional Uses of Common Rubus Species 260
13.2.1 Rubus fruticosus 260
13.2.2 Rubus ellipticus 260
13.2.3 Rubus idaeus and Related Rubus Species 261
13.3 Biological Activity Studies of Rubus Extracts 261
13.4 Bioactive Compounds From Rubus Species 262
13.5 Rubus as an Antitumor Agent 262
13.6 Conclusion 265
Acknowledgements 265
References 265
14 Therapeutic Compounds From Brown Seaweeds: Antitumor Properties on Various Cancers and Their Mechanisms of Action 271
Dilek Unal and Inci Tüney Kizilkaya
14.1 Introduction 271
14.2 Type of Bioactive Compounds From Brown Algae 273
14.2.1 Terpenoids (Terpens) 273
14.2.2 Polysaccharides 274
14.2.2.1 Alginic Acid 274
14.2.2.2 Fucoidans 274
14.2.2.3 Laminarin 275
14.2.3 Polyphenols 275
14.2.4 Pigments 276
14.3 Type of Cancer and Molecular Action Mechanisms 276
14.3.1 Breast Cancer 278
14.3.2 Colon Cancer 279
14.3.3 Prostate Cancer 280
14.4 Conclusion 280
References 280
15 Medicinal Plants and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome 287
Yogamaya D Prabhu, Abilash Valsala Gopalakrishnan and Selvaraj Mohana Roopan
15.1 Introduction 287
15.2 Clinical Manifestations of PCOS 288
15.3 Importance of Phenotypes in PCOS 289
15.4 Conventional Therapies for PCOS Treatment 290
15.5 Herbal Medicine and PCOS 290
15.6 Conclusion 295
List of Abbreviations & Symbols 296
References 296
16 The Potential Role of Phytochemical in Establishing Prophylactic Measurements Against Neurological Diseases 301
Srivastava P. and Tiwari A.
16.1 Introduction 301
16.2 Focused Neurological Disorder for Herbal Promises 302
16.2.1 Cases of Attention 303
16.2.2 Target Identification 303
16.2.3 Physicochemical Characterization and Secondary Structure Prediction 303
16.2.4 Molecular Modeling Studies 304
16.2.5 Virtual Screening for Potential Phytochemicals 305
16.2.6 Molecular Interaction Studies 307
16.3 Conclusion 311
References 311
17 Immunomodulatory Activity of Cannabinoids: From Abuse to Therapy 315
Farid A. Badria and Abdullah A. Elgazar
17.1 Introduction 315
17.2 Immunity System, Related Diseases and Current Therapeutic Options 318
17.3 Historical and Traditional Uses of Cannabis Herb 320
17.4 Chemistry of Cannabinoids 321
17.5 Pharmacology of Phytocannabinoids 323
17.5.1 Pharmacological Effect of THC 323
17.5.2 Pharmacological Effect of CBD 324
17.6 Conclusion 326
References 326
18 Botany, Geographical Distribution, Phytochemistry and Phytopharmaceutical Potential of Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meisn.: An Overview 331
Mohd. Shahnawaz, Refaz Ahmad Dar, Syed Mudassir Jeelani, Tahoora Batool Zargar, Malik Mohd. Azhar, Sajad Ahmed, Sabeena Ali, Rekha Chouhan, Gulfam Sheikh, Puja Gupta, Abhishek Kumar Nautiyal, Manisha K. Sangale and Avinash B. Ade
18.1 Introduction 332
18.2 Botany and Taxonomic Status of R. emodi 332
18.3 Origin and Geographical Distribution of R. emodi 333
18.4 Phyto Constituents of R. emodi 334
18.5 Traditional Uses of R. emodi 341
18.6 Pharmaceutically Active Biomolecules of R. emodi 341
18.7 Conclusion 342
18.8 Future Prospective 342
Acknowledgements 342
References 343
19 Taxonomic Status, Phytochemical Constituents and Pharmaceutical Active Components of Genus Alseodaphne: A Literature Update 347
Puja Gupta, Mohd. Shahnawaz, Sajad Ahmad, Rekha Chouhan, Sundeep Jaglan, Yash pal Sharma, Madangchanok Imchen and Ranjith Kumavath
19.1 Introduction 347
19.2 Botany and Taxonomic Status of Some Important Members of Alseodaphne 348
19.2.1 Alseodaphne archboldiana Kosterm 348
19.2.2 Alseodaphne andersonii Kosterm 348
19.2.3 Alseodaphne corneri Kosterm 349
19.2.4 Alseodaphne hainanensis Merr 349
19.2.5 Alseodaphne pendulifolia Gamble 349
19.2.6 Alseodpahne peduncularis (Wall. ex Nees) 349
19.2.7 Alseodaphne perakensis (Gamble) Kosterm 349
19.2.8 Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees 350
19.3 Origin and Geographical Distribution of Some Important Members of Genus Alseodaphne 350
19.3.1 A. archboldiana 350
19.3.2 A. andersonii 350
19.3.3 A. corneri 350
19.3.4 A. hainensis 350
19.3.5 A. pendulifolia 350
19.3.6 A. peduncularis 350
19.3.7 A. perakensis 351
19.3.8 A. semecarpifolia 351
19.4 Phytochemical Studies of a Few Important Members of Alseodaphne 351
19.4.1 A. archboldiana 351
19.4.2 A. andersonii 351
19.4.3 A. corneri 351
19.4.4 A. hainensis 352
19.4.5 A. pendulifolia 352
19.4.6 A. peduncularis 352
19.4.7 A. perakensis 352
19.4.8 A. semicarpifolia 352
19.5 Traditional and Pharmaceutical Importance of Some Important Members of Alseodaphne 353
19.5.1 A. archboldiana 353
19.5.2 A. andersonii 353
19.5.2.1 Effect on Inflammation and Central Nervous System 353
19.5.2.2 Antimicrobial Activity 353
19.5.2.3 Immunomodulatory Activity of A. andersonii 354
19.5.2.4 Major Fatty Acids and Oil Content of A. andersonii 354
19.5.3 A. corneri 354
19.5.4 A. hainensis 354
19.5.5 A. pendulifolia 355
19.5.6 A. peduncularis 355
19.5.7 A. perakensis 355
19.5.8 A. semicarpifolia 356
19.6 Future Prospective 356
19.7 Conclusions 356
Acknowledgments 356
References 357
20 Bioactive Compounds From Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi and Their Potential Health Benefits 363
Nayara Bispo Macedo, Daylín Díaz Gutierrez, Andreza Santana Santos, Raquel Oliveira Pereira, Gopalsamy Rajiv Gandhi, Maria das Graças de Oliveira e Silva, Alexis Vidal, Lucindo José Quintans Júnior, Jullyana de Souza Siqueira Quintans and Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva
20.1 Introduction 363
20.2 Search Strategies 364
20.3 Bioactive Compounds 365
20.3.1 Phenolic Compounds 372
20.3.2 Terpenes 373
20.4 Biological Activities 373
20.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity 373
20.4.2 Healing Activity 383
20.4.3 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 385
20.4.4 Antioxidant Activity 389
20.5 Toxicity 395
20.6 Conclusion and Future Considerations 395
Acknowledgements 396
References 396
21 Composition and Biological Properties of Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) 403
Andreza de Santana Santos, Anne Karoline de Souza Oliveira, Raquel Oliveira Pereira, Erivan Vieira Barbosa Junior, Adalgisa de Lima Sayao and Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva
21.1 Introduction 403
21.2 Chemical Characterization 404
21.2.1 Centesimal Composition 404
21.2.1.1 Peel 404
21.2.1.2 Pericarp or Pulp 404
21.2.1.3 Seed 411
21.2.2 Bioactive Compounds 411
21.2.2.1 Peel 411
21.2.2.2 Pericarp or Pulp 411
21.2.2.3 Seed 412
21.3 Biological Properties 412
21.3.1 Antioxidant Activity 412
21.3.2 Antimicrobial Activity 418
21.3.3 Antidiabetic Activity 421
21.3.4 Antiobesogenic Activity 421
21.3.5 Other Health Benefits 425
21.4 Toxicity Aspects 430
21.5 Conclusion 430
References 433
22 Phytochemicals and Health: An Update 437
Semih Otles and Gozde Turkoz Bakirci
22.1 Introduction 437
22.1.1 Types of Phytochemicals 438
22.1.2 Reported Phytochemicals 438
22.1.2.1 Steroids 439
22.1.2.2 Flavonoid C-Glycoside 439
22.1.2.3 Flavones 439
22.1.2.4 Essential Oil Component 439
22.1.2.5 Tannins 439
22.1.2.6 Miscellaneous 442
22.2 Health Effect of Phytochemicals 442
22.2.1 Wheat 448
22.2.2 Barley 449
22.2.3 Fruit and Vegetables 449
22.2.4 Legumes 451
22.2.5 Tea 451
22.2.6 Spices and Herbs 451
22.3 Advanced Analysis of Phytochemicals 451
22.4 Conclusion 452
References 452
Index 455
