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Oxide Electronics. Edition No. 1. Wiley Series in Materials for Electronic & Optoelectronic Applications

  • Book

  • 624 Pages
  • May 2021
  • John Wiley and Sons Ltd
  • ID: 5839350
Oxide Electronics

Multiple disciplines converge in this insightful exploration of complex metal oxides and their functions and properties

Oxide Electronics delivers a broad and comprehensive exploration of complex metal oxides designed to meet the multidisciplinary needs of electrical and electronic engineers, physicists, and material scientists. The distinguished author eschews complex mathematics whenever possible and focuses on the physical and functional properties of metal oxides in each chapter.

Each of the sixteen chapters featured within the book begins with an abstract and an introduction to the topic, clear explanations are presented with graphical illustrations and relevant equations throughout the book. Numerous supporting references are included, and each chapter is self-contained, making them perfect for use both as a reference and as study material.

Readers will learn how and why the field of oxide electronics is a key area of research and exploitation in materials science, electrical engineering, and semiconductor physics. The book encompasses every application area where the functional and electronic properties of various genres of oxides are exploited. Readers will also learn from topics like:- Thorough discussions of High-k gate oxide for silicon heterostructure MOSFET devices and semiconductor-dielectric interfaces- An exploration of printable high-mobility transparent amorphous oxide semiconductors- Treatments of graphene oxide electronics, magnetic oxides, ferroelectric oxides, and materials for spin electronics- Examinations of the calcium aluminate binary compound, perovoksites for photovoltaics, and oxide 2Degs- Analyses of various applications for oxide electronics, including data storage, microprocessors, biomedical devices, LCDs, photovoltaic cells, TFTs, and sensors

Suitable for researchers in semiconductor technology or working in materials science, electrical engineering, and physics, Oxide Electronics will also earn a place in the libraries of private industry researchers like device engineers working on electronic applications of oxide electronics. Engineers working on photovoltaics, sensors, or consumer electronics will also benefit from this book.

Table of Contents

Series Preface xiii

Preface xv

List of Contributors xvii

1 Graphene Oxide for Electronics 1
Fenghua Liu, Lifeng Zhang, Lijian Wang, Binyuan Zhao and WeipingWu

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Synthesis and Characterizations of Graphene Oxide 2

1.2.1 Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO) 2

1.2.2 Microwave Method 2

1.2.3 Plasma Method 3

1.2.4 Laser Method 4

1.3 Energy Harvest Applications of Graphene Oxide 5

1.3.1 Solar Cells 5

1.3.2 Solar Thermal Energy Harvest Devices 7

1.4 Energy Storage Applications of Graphene Oxide 7

1.4.1 Supercapacitors 7

1.4.2 Batteries 10

1.5 Electronic Device Applications of Graphene Oxide 12

1.6 Large Area Electronics Applications of Graphene Oxide 13

References 16

2 Flexible and Wearable Graphene-Based E-Textiles 21
Nazmul Karim, Shaila Afroj, Damien Leech and Amr M. Abdelkader

2.1 Introduction to Wearable E-Textiles 21

2.2 Synthesis of Graphene Derivatives 22

2.2.1 Graphene Oxide 22

2.2.2 Reduced Graphene Oxide 24

2.3 Graphene-BasedWearable E-Textiles 25

2.3.1 Graphene-Based Textile Fibres 26

2.3.2 Graphene-Coated Textiles 27

2.3.3 Graphene-PrintedWearable E-Textiles 28

2.3.3.1 Screen Printing 30

2.3.3.2 Inkjet Printing 30

2.4 Surface Pre- and Post-Treatment of Substrates 32

2.5 Applications 34

2.5.1 Sensors 34

2.5.2 Supercapacitor 36

2.5.3 Rechargeable Batteries 38

2.5.4 Optoelectronics 39

2.6 Challenges and Outlook 40

References 41

3 Magnetic Interactions in the Cubic Mott Insulators NiO, MnO, and CoO and the Related Oxides CuO and FeO 51
David J. Lockwood andMichael G. Cottam

3.1 Introduction 51

3.2 Spin-Spin Interactions 52

3.2.1 Magnetic Ordering Below TN 52

3.2.2 Magnetostriction 53

3.2.3 Magnetic and Electronic Excitations 54

3.3 Spin-Phonon Interactions 59

3.3.1 Phonon and Magnon Temperature Dependences 60

3.3.2 Phonon Mode Splitting Below TN 62

3.4 Other Related Materials 64

3.4.1 Cupric Oxide 64

3.4.2 Iron Monoxide 65

3.5 Conclusions 68

Acknowledgments 68

References 68

4 High-𝜿 Dielectric Oxides for Electronics 75
Tong Zhang, Xiaoyang Zhang, Yi Yang and WeipingWu

4.1 Introduction of High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides 75

4.1.1 Group IIIA Dielectric Oxides 77

4.1.2 Group IIIB High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides 77

4.1.3 Group IVB High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides 77

4.2 The Deposition of High-πœ… Oxide Dielectrics 78

4.3 High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides for Field-Effect Transistors 80

4.3.1 High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides for the MOSFETs 80

4.3.2 High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides for Tunnel Field-Effect Transistors 84

4.4 High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides for Memory Devices 85

4.4.1 High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides for DRAM 85

4.4.2 High-πœ… Dielectric Oxides for ReRAM 87

References 88

5 Low Temperature Growth of Germanium Oxide Nanowires by Template Based Self Assembly and their Raman Characterization 93
Raisa Fabiha, Abigail Casey, Gregory Triplett and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay

5.1 Introduction 93

5.2 Synthesis 93

5.3 Characterization 96

5.4 Raman Measurements 96

5.5 Conclusion 98

References 99

6 Electronic Phenomena, Electroforming, Resistive Switching, and Defect Conduction Bands in Metal-Insulator-Metal Diodes 101
ThomasW. Hickmott

6.1 Introduction 101

6.2 Experimental 103

6.3 Electroforming, Electroluminescence, and Electron Emission 104

6.3.1 Electroforming of Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 104

6.3.2 Electroluminescence from Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 104

6.3.3 Electron Emission from Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 105

6.3.4 VCNR, EL, and EM in Other Insulators 107

6.3.5 Temperature Dependence of EM 108

6.4 Electrode Effects in Resistive Switching of Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 109

6.4.1 Resistive Switching in Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 109

6.4.2 Resistive Switching at Low Temperatures 109

6.4.3 Structure in I-V Curves of Electroformed Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 110

6.5 Conduction, Electroluminescence, and Photoconductivity Before Electroforming MIM Diodes 112

6.5.1 Conduction in Nb-Nb2O5-Au Diodes 112

6.5.2 Electroluminescence in Nb-Nb2O5-Au Diodes 112

6.5.3 Conduction and Electroluminescence in MIM Diodes with TiO2 and Ta2O5 115

6.5.4 Photoconductivity in MIM Diodes 115

6.6 Discussion 118

6.6.1 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Al2O3 119

6.6.2 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Nb2O5 121

6.6.3 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Insulators 123

6.7 Summary and Conclusions 125

References 125

7 Lead Oxide as Material of Choice for Direct Conversion Detectors 129
Alla Reznik and Oleksii Semeniuk

7.1 Introduction 129

7.2 Crystal Structure and Electronic Properties of PbO 130

7.2.1 Crystal Structure of Tetragonal PbO (𝛼-PbO) 131

7.2.2 Crystal Structure of Orthorhombic PbO (𝛽-PbO) 132

7.2.3 Electronic Properties of 𝛼- and 𝛽-PbO 133

7.3 Deposition Process of PbO Layers 135

7.4 Charge Transport Mechanism in Lead Oxide 147

7.4.1 Electron Transport in poly-PbO 148

References 151

8 ZnO Varistors: From Grain Boundaries to Power Applications 157
Felix Greuter

8.1 Introduction 157

8.2 Manufacturing Process of ZnO Varistors 160

8.3 Microstructure and Grain Boundaries 162

8.4 Grain Boundary Potential Barriers 168

8.5 The β€˜Double Schottky Barrier Defect Model’ 174

8.6 Hot Electron Effects Controlling the Breakdown Region 181

8.7 Hot Electron Effects and Dynamic Response 185

8.8 From Single Grain Boundaries to Microstructures and Varistor Devices 196

8.9 Ageing and Long-Term Stability of Varistor Materials 207

8.10 Energy Absorption Capability and High Current Impulse Stresses 218

8.11 Summary and Outlook 223

Acknowledgements 226

References 226

9 Fundamental Properties and Power Electronic Device Progress of Gallium Oxide 235
Xuanhu Chen, Chennupati Jagadish and Jiandong Ye

9.1 Introduction 235

9.2 Electronic Properties and Defects of Ga2O3 236

9.2.1 Bulk Crystals, Epitaxy, and n-type Doping 237

9.2.2 Electronic Band Structure and Feasibility of p-type Doping 240

9.2.3 Defect Behaviour in Bulk Crystals and Epitaxial Films 245

9.3 Basic Device Characteristics 250

9.3.1 Metal-Semiconductor Contact 250

9.3.1.1 Barrier Formation 250

9.3.1.2 Image-Force Lowering 252

9.3.1.3 Carrier Transport and Breakdown 254

9.3.2 Physics of Deep Depletion Ga2O3 MOSFETs 257

9.3.2.1 Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Capacitors 257

9.3.2.2 Basic Device Characteristics of DepletionMode MOSFETs Based on Ga2O3 270

9.3.2.3 Approaches to Enhancement-Mode 𝛽-Ga2O3 MOSFETs 280

9.3.3 Relevant Figure of Merit in Ga2O3 282

9.4 Ga2O3 Schottky Rectifiers 286

9.4.1 Edge Terminations 287

9.4.2 Ga2O3 Schottky Rectifiers 295

9.4.3 Ga2O3 p-n Heterojunction Diodes 301

9.5 Ga2O3 Transistors 307

9.5.1 Ohmic Contacts to Ga2O3 307

9.5.2 Dielectric Materials for Ga2O3 and MOSCaps 308

9.5.3 Lateral Ga2O3 FETs 313

9.5.4 𝛽-Ga2O3 MODFETs 324

9.5.5 Vertical Ga2O3 MOSFETs 330

9.6 Summary 335

References 336

10 Emerging Trends, Challenges, and Applications in Solid-State Laser Cooling 353
Jyothis Thomas, LauroMaia, Yannick Ledemi, YounesMessaddeq and Raman Kashyap

10.1 Introduction 353

10.2 Theory 355

10.3 Experimental Design Considerations for Cooling 357

10.3.1 Experimental Setups Used for Solid-state Laser Cooling 357

10.3.1.1 Crystals 357

10.3.1.2 Glasses 358

10.3.1.3 Silica Glass Optical Fibres 360

10.3.1.4 Semiconductor Nanoribbons 361

10.3.2 Techniques to Analyse Background Absorption (𝛼b) Coefficient 361

10.3.3 Temperature Measurement Techniques in Solid-State Laser Cooling 362

10.3.3.1 Thermal Imaging 362

10.3.3.2 Photoluminescence (PL)Thermometry 363

10.3.3.3 Temperature Measurement Using Fibre Bragg Gratings 363

10.3.3.4 Thermocouples 364

10.3.3.5 Photothermal Deflection Spectroscopy (PTDS) 364

10.3.3.6 Interferometric Technique 364

10.4 Laser Cooling Materials and Properties 365

10.4.1 Crystals 366

10.4.2 Semiconductors 368

10.4.3 Optical Fibres 370

10.4.4 Nanocrystalline Powders 371

10.5 Oxyfluoride Glass-Ceramics: Recent Developments in Solid-State Laser Cooling 373

10.5.1 Earth-Doped Oxyfluoride Pseudo-Binary Glasses and Glass-Ceramics for Optical Refrigeration 375

10.5.1.1 Materials and Methods 376

10.5.1.2 Results and Discussion 376

10.5.1.3 Summary on Pseudo-Binary Oxyfluoride Glass Ceramics 381

10.6 Optical Cryocooler Devices 382

10.7 Future Prospects and Conclusions 386

Acknowledgements 388

References 388

11 ElectrodeMaterials for Sodium Ion Rechargeable Batteries 397
TaniaMajumder, Anwesa Mukherjee, Debasish Das and S.B.Majumder

11.1 Introduction - Review of the Constituents Used in Na - Ion Cells 397

11.2 Cathode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells 397

11.2.1 Transition Metal Oxides with Layered Structure 397

11.2.2 Prussian Blue Analogue 398

11.2.3 Sodium Superionic Conductors (NASICON) 399

11.2.4 Other Cathodes 400

11.3 Current Collectors, Binder, and Electrolyte 400

11.4 Anode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells 401

11.4.1 Carbonaceous Materials 401

11.4.2 Alloying Type Anodes 401

11.4.3 Conversion Type Anodes 402

11.4.4 Other Anodes 402

11.5 Outstanding Research Issues and Statement of the Problem 402

11.6 Synthesis and Electrochemical Characterization of Electrodes 404

11.6.1 Ilmenite NiTiO3 as Anode 404

11.6.1.1 Synthesis and Characterization 404

11.6.2 Electrochemical Characterization 404

11.6.3 Electrophoretic Deposition of NiTiO3-Based Anode 406

11.6.4 Electrochemical Performance of EPD Grown NTO Anodes 408

11.7 Na2Ti3O7 as Anode 409

11.7.1 Synthesis and Characterization 409

11.7.2 Electrochemical Characterization of Pristine NaTO 410

11.7.3 Electrochemical Performance of Carbon-Coated NaTO Anode 411

11.7.4 Electrochemical Performance of NaTO/rGO Composite Anode 413

11.8 PBA as Cathode 414

11.8.1 Nickel Hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) 415

11.8.2 Iron Hexacyanoferrate (FeHCF) 417

11.9 Summary and Conclusions 418

Acknowledgement 419

References 419

12 Perovskites for Photovoltaics 423
Hooman Mehdizadeh Rad, David Ompong and Jai Singh

12.1 Introduction 423

12.2 Diffusion Length 424

12.2.1 Methodology 425

12.2.2 Results of Simulated Diffusion Length and Discussions 427

12.3 Open-Circuit Voltage 432

12.3.1 Results of Open-Circuit Voltage and Discussions 433

12.3.2 Bimolecular Recombination 436

12.4 Influence of Density of Tail States at Interfaces 437

12.4.1 Methods 437

12.4.2 Results of Density of States and Discussions 441

12.5 Conclusions 444

References 447

13 Advanced Characterizations of Oxides for Optoelectronic Applications 453
U. Onwukwe, L. Anguilano and P. Sermon

13.1 A Brief History of Optoelectronic Devices 453

13.1.1 Semiconductors 454

13.1.1.1 n-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors 455

13.1.1.2 p-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors 456

13.2 Interaction of Semiconductors and the Optoelectronic Phenomenon 457

13.2.1 Direct Band Gap Semiconductors 457

13.2.1.1 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors 458

13.2.2 Oxides for Optoelectronics: Introduction 459

13.2.3 Major Types of MO for Optoelectronics 460

13.2.3.1 ITO 460

13.2.3.2 ZnO 460

13.2.3.3 AZO 461

13.2.3.4 IGZO 461

13.2.3.5 Perovskite Oxides 462

13.2.3.6 Reduced Graphene Oxide-Miscellaneous Materials 463

13.2.4 Method of Preparation of Optoelectronic Structures 467

13.2.4.1 Nanowires/Nanorods 467

13.2.4.2 Thin Films 467

13.2.4.3 Mixed Morphologies Fabrication 468

13.3 Characterization Techniques and their Use for Metal Oxide Optoelectronics 470

13.3.1 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) 470

13.3.2 Fourier-Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) 471

13.3.2.1 Raman Spectroscopy 473

13.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 475

13.3.4 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 477

13.3.5 Luminescence Techniques 480

13.3.6 X-Ray Diffraction 482

13.4 Facilities and Case Studies 484

13.4.1 Case Study I - Leaf Biotemplate Derived TiO2 485

References 488

14 Future Tuning Optoelectronic Oxides from the Inside: Sol-Gel (TiO2)x-(SiO2)100-x 497
M.P.Worsley, J.G. Leadley, R.M.A. MacGibbon, T. Salvesen, P.A. Sermon and J.M. Charnock

14.1 Introduction and Background 497

14.1.1 Photons and Wavetrains 497

14.1.2 Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices 497

14.1.3 TiO2 498

14.1.4 TiO2-SiO2 498

14.1.5 Alkoxide and Sol-Gel Routes to TiO2-SiO2 500

14.1.6 Miscibility and the % TiO2 (x) Added in TiO2-SiO2 500

14.1.7 Doping of TiO2-SiO2 501

14.1.8 Local Structure in TiO2-SiO2 501

14.2 Hypothesis 503

14.3 Experimental 504

14.3.1 Materials 504

14.3.2 Preparations 504

14.3.3 Characterization Methods 504

14.4 Characterization Results 505

14.5 Discussion on Future Automated CALPHAD Design, Dip-Coating Mechanical, and High-Throughput Screening of Novel Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices 510

14.6 Conclusions on TiO2-SiO2 Use 510

Acknowledgements 513

References 513

15 Binary Calcia-Alumina Thin Films: Synthesis and Properties and Applications 525
Asim K. Ray

15.1 Introduction 525

15.2 Structural and Physical Properties of C12A7 526

15.2.1 Thermal Stability 528

15.2.2 Ionic Conductivity and Mechanisms of Oxide-Ion Migration 529

15.3 Atomic and Electronic Structure 530

15.3.1 Synthesis of C12A7 531

15.3.2 Single Powders 531

15.3.3 Single Crystal 532

15.3.4 Polycrystalline Bulk 533

15.3.5 Thin Film 535

15.3.6 Ion Doping in C12A7 536

15.3.6.1 Heat Treatment in H2 Atmosphere 537

15.3.6.2 Thermoelectricity 537

15.4 Optical Properties 540

15.4.1 Reflectivity 541

15.4.2 Luminescence 542

15.5 Applications of C12A7 543

15.6 Summary 545

Acknowledgements 546

References 546

16 Oxide Cathodes 553
Ian Alberts

16.1 Historical Aspects 553

16.1.1 The Edison Effect 555

16.1.2 ArthurWehnelt 555

16.1.3 Thermionic Emission Research in the Early Twentieth Century 556

16.1.4 Oxide Cathodes for the CRT 556

16.2 Physics of Thermionic Emission 557

16.2.1 Derivation of the Richardson-Dushman Equation 558

16.2.2 Space Charge and the Child-Langmuir Law 559

16.3 Oxide Cathode Development 560

16.3.1 The Barium-Coated Cathode 561

16.3.2 The Rise and Subsequent Fall of the Impregnated Cathode 562

16.3.3 Cermet Cathodes 565

16.3.4 State of the Art 565

16.4 Future Trends and Ongoing Applications 567

16.4.1 Vacuum X-Ray Tubes 568

16.4.2 Military Telecommunications 568

16.4.3 Klystrons 570

16.4.4 Gyrotron 571

16.4.5 Thermionic Energy Conversion 571

16.4.6 Triboelectric Nanogenerators 573

16.4.7 Frontiers in Thermionic Research: Vacuum Nanoelectronics 575

16.4.8 Field Emission Displays (FED) 575

16.5 Conclusion 577Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β 

References 577

Index 583

Authors

Asim K. Ray