Presenting cutting-edge information on new and emerging food engineering processes, Novel Technologies in Food Science, the newest volume in the ground-breaking new series, “Bioprocessing in Food Science,” is an essential reference on the modelling, quality, safety, and technologies associated with food processing operations today.
Novel Technologies in Food Science, the latest volume in the series, “Bioprocessing in Food Science,” is based on the novel technologies in usage and requirements for handling, processing, storage, and packaging of food. Novel bioprocessing technologies are gaining more interest among researchers and industries due to the minimal impact on product quality in comparison to conventional methods. These techniques are also superior in terms of energy, time-saving and extended shelf life, and thus can replace the conventional technologies partially or completely. Practical application of these technologies by the food industry, however, is limited due to higher costs, lack of knowledge in food manufacturers for the implementation of technologies, and validation systems. An in-depth discussion on consumer needs and rights, industry responsibilities, and future prospectus of novel technologies in food science are covered in this volume.
The main objective of this book is to disseminate knowledge about the recent technologies developed in the field of food science to students, researchers, and industry people. This will enable them to make crucial decisions regarding the adoption, implementation, economics, and constraints of the different technologies.
Different technologies like ultrasonication, pulse electric field, high-pressure processing, magnetization, ohmic heating, and irradiation are discussed with their application in food product manufacturing, packaging, food safety, and quality assurance. Whether for the veteran engineer or scientist, the student, or a manager or other technician working in the field, this volume is a must-have for any library.
Table of Contents
Preface xvii
1 Ultrasound 1
Hugo Scudino, Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Angela Suárez-Jacobo, Hilda María Hernández-Hernández, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Socorro Josefina Villanueva Rodríguez, Vitoria Hagemann Cauduro, Erick Almeida Esmerino, Erico Marlon Moraes Flores and Adriano Gomes da Cruz
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Basic Principles of Ultrasound 3
1.2.1 Generation of the Ultrasonic Wave 4
1.2.2 Principles of Acoustic Cavitation 5
1.3 Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation 6
1.4 Ultrasound Application in the Food Industry 17
1.4.1 Impact of Ultrasound on Physicochemical Quality Indicators of Food 20
1.4.1.1 Meat Products 20
1.4.1.2 Fruits and Vegetables 21
1.4.1.3 Dairy Industry 22
1.4.2 Effects of Ultrasound Treatment on Sensory Characteristics of Foods 23
1.5 Conclusion 28
References 29
2 Pulse Electric Field: Novel Technology in Food Processing 39
Navnidhi Chhikara, Anil Panghal, D.N. Yadav, Sandeep Mann and Priya Bishnoi
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Principle 40
2.3 Electroporation 42
2.4 PEF System 42
2.5 Factors Affecting PEF 44
2.5.1 Process Factors 44
2.5.2 Food Matrix 45
2.5.3 Microbial Factors 46
2.6 Benefits and Shortcomings of PEF 46
2.7 Application in Food Industry 47
2.7.1 Drying 47
2.7.2 Food Preservation 49
2.7.3 Improvement of Extraction of Intracellular Compounds 52
2.8 Effect of PEF on Food Components 53
2.8.1 Proximate Composition 53
2.8.2 Other Components 54
2.8.3 Sensory Attributes 54
2.9 Conclusion 55
References 55
3 An Overview of Membrane Technology in Dairy & Food Industry 65
Sunil Kumar Khatkar, Kuldeep Dudi, Shubham Arjun Lonkar, Kiranpreet Singh Sidhu, Anju Boora Khatkar, Narender Kumar Chandla and Anil Panghal
List of Abbreviations 66
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Terminology in Membrane Processing 69
3.2.1 Membrane 69
3.2.2 Permeate 69
3.2.3 Retentive/Retentate 69
3.2.4 Fouling 69
3.2.5 Concentration Polarization 69
3.2.6 Concentration Factor 70
3.2.7 Feed 70
3.2.8 Flux 70
3.2.9 Pore Size 70
3.2.10 Molecular Weight Cut-Off 70
3.3 Types of Membrane 70
3.3.1 Microporous Membrane 70
3.3.2 Nonporous, Dense Membrane 71
3.3.3 Electrically Charged Membranes 71
3.3.4 Anisotropic Membranes (Asymmetrical) 71
3.3.5 Ceramic, Metal and Liquid Membranes 72
3.4 Processes in Membrane Technology 72
3.4.1 Microfiltration (MF) 72
3.4.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 72
3.4.3 Nano-Filtration (NF) 73
3.4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 73
3.5 Membrane Modules 74
3.6 Mechanism of Mass Transfer in Membrane Separation 76
3.6.1 Concentration Polarization (CP) 76
3.6.2 Membrane Fouling 77
3.6.3 Major Categories of Fouling 78
3.6.3.1 Inorganic Fouling 78
3.6.3.2 Organic Fouling 78
3.6.3.3 Colloidal Fouling 78
3.6.3.4 Biological Fouling 79
3.7 Mechanism of Membrane Fouling 79
3.8 Factors Influencing Fouling of Membrane 80
3.8.1 Properties of Membrane 81
3.8.2 Feed Properties 81
3.8.3 Operating Parameters 82
3.9 Prevention of Membrane Fouling 82
3.9.1 Type of Feed and Pre-Treatment 82
3.9.2 Operating Parameters 83
3.9.2.1 Operating Pressure 83
3.9.2.2 Operating Temperature 83
3.9.2.3 Feed Velocity 83
3.10 Mass Transfer Model for Filtration Process in Absence of Fouling 83
3.10.1 Diffusion Theory Through Dense Membrane 84
3.10.2 Transfer Through Porous Membrane - Convective Transfer - Pore Flow Model 85
3.11 Application of the Membrane Technology in Dairy Industry 85
3.11.1 Microfiltration 85
3.11.1.1 Waste Water Processing 85
3.11.1.2 Production of the Protein Concentrate 86
3.11.1.3 Isolation 86
3.11.1.4 Separation of Micellar Casein from the Milk 86
3.11.1.5 Pretreatment of the Cheese Milk 87
3.11.2 Ultrafiltration 87
3.11.2.1 Enzyme Recovery and Concentration 87
3.11.2.2 Cheese Manufacturing 87
3.11.3 Nanofiltration 88
3.11.4 Reverse Osmosis 88
3.12 Application of Membrane Technology in Food Industry 88
3.12.1 Beverages 89
3.12.2 Clarification, Concentration, and Sterilization of Fruit Juices 89
3.12.3 Concentration, De-Acidification, and Demineralization of Juices 90
3.12.4 Demineralization of Sugar Syrup 91
3.12.5 Manufacturing of Beverages Using Vegetable Proteins 91
3.12.6 Rough Beer Clarification 92
3.12.7 Preservation of Beer 92
3.12.8 Membrane Processing in the Wine Industry 92
3.12.9 Membrane Processing in Fish, Poultry, and Gelatin Industry 94
3.13 Uses of Membrane Technology in Biotechnology 94
3.13.1 Purification of Proteins 94
3.13.2 Purification of Antibody 94
3.13.3 Controlled Protein Digestion - A Substrate for Mass Spectroscopy 95
3.13.4 Enantiomer Isolation from Racemic Mixtures 95
3.14 Membrane Distillation 96
References 98
4 Cold Plasma 109
Rodrigo Nunes Cavalcanti, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Erick Almeida Esmerino, Monica Queiroz de Freitas, Silvani Verruck, Marcia Cristina Silva and Adriano Gomes da Cruz
4.1 Introduction 109
4.2 Principles and Methods of Plasma Generation 111
4.3 Cold Plasma Applied in Food Systems 115
4.3.1 Modification of Food Components Functionality 115
4.3.2 Cold Plasma Mechanisms Involved in Microbial Inactivation 127
4.3.3 Decontamination of Mycotoxins and Pesticides By Cold Plasma 139
4.3.4 Cold Plasma Mechanisms Involved in Enzyme Inactivation 142
4.3.5 Cold Plasma for Food Packaging 143
4.3.6 Cold Plasma in Biofilms and Surfaces Treatment 150
4.3.7 Cold Plasma in Wastewater Treatment 151
4.4 Conclusions 152
References 152
5 Utilization of Magnetic Fields in Food Industry 171
S. Abinaya, Anil Panghal, Roopa H., Navnidhi Chhikara, Anju Kumari and Rakesh Gehlot
5.1 Introduction 172
5.2 Magnetism 173
5.2.1 Classification of Magnetic Fields 175
5.2.2 Generation of Magnetic Field 176
5.2.3 Magnetic Field Around a Current Carrying Conductor 177
5.2.4 Effect of Magnetic Fields in Biological Systems 179
5.2.4.1 Effect on Microorganisms 180
5.2.4.2 Operating Conditions 185
5.2.4.3 Characteristics of Magnetic Field 185
5.2.4.4 Temperature 185
5.2.4.5 Microbial Growth Stage 185
5.2.4.6 Electrical Resistivity 186
5.2.4.7 Effect on Enzymes 186
5.3 Potential Applications of Magnetic Fields in Food Industry 190
5.3.1 Compositional Analysis 190
5.3.1.1 Water 190
5.3.1.2 Fat 191
5.3.1.3 Protein 192
5.3.2 Structure Analysis 192
5.4 Food Processing 193
5.4.1 Freezing 193
5.4.2 Drying 195
5.4.3 Frying 197
5.4.4 Fermentation 198
5.4.5 Extraction 199
5.4.6 Packaging 200
5.5 Quality Inspection 200
5.5.1 Fruits 200
5.5.1.1 Apples 213
5.5.1.2 Citrus Fruits 213
5.5.1.3 Kiwifruit 214
5.5.2 Vegetables 215
5.5.2.1 Tomato 215
5.5.2.2 Potatoes 216
5.5.3 Cereal and Cereal Products 217
5.5.4 Seafood 218
5.5.5 Other Food Applications 222
5.6 Conclusion 224
References 224
6 Microwaves Application to Food and Food Waste Processing 235
Cristina Barrera, Pedro J. Fito, Marta Castro-Giráldez, Noelia Betoret and Lucía Seguí
6.1 Introduction to Microwave Technology. Basis of Photon-Matter Interaction in the Microwave Range 236
6.2 Microwaves Applications to Food Process Monitoring 238
6.3 Microwaves in Food Processing 240
6.4 Microwaves Contribution to Food Waste Valorization Processes 246
6.4.1 Microwaves as A Pretreatment for Food Waste Transformation Into Biofuels and Other Value-Added Products 246
6.4.2 Microwaves Applied to the Recovery of Bio-Compounds from Food Wastes 251
6.5 Microwaves for Functional Food Development and Increased Bioaccessibility 253
6.6 Conclusions and Prospects 257
References 258
7 Radio-Frequency Technology in Food Processing 271
Aastha Dewan, Anil Panghal, Bahareh Dabaghiannejad, Vivek Ranga, Naveen Kumar and Navnidhi Chhikara
7.1 Introduction 272
7.2 RF Technology and Principle 272
7.2.1 Types and Equipment 274
7.2.2 RF vs. Microwave (MW) Heating 276
7.3 Application of RF in Processing 276
7.3.1 Drying 276
7.3.2 Baking 285
7.3.3 Sterilization & Pasteurization 287
7.3.4 Roasting 289
7.3.5 Blanching 289
7.3.6 Thawing and Defrosting 290
7.3.7 Inhibition of Anti-Nutritional Factors 290
7.3.8 Disinfestation 291
7.4 Effect on Food Quality 292
7.4.1 Microbiological Quality 292
7.4.2 Nutritional Quality 293
7.5 Future Scope/Prospectus 298
7.6 Conclusion 298
References 299
8 Ultrasound Technology in Food Processing: Technology, Mechanisms and Applications 307
Kaidi Peng, Olivier Bals, Eugène Vorobiev and Mohamed Koubaa
8.1 Introduction 307
8.2 Mechanisms of Action of Ultrasound Technology 308
8.3 Equipment Used for Ultrasonic Applications 312
8.4 Selected Applications of Ultrasounds in Food Processing 315
8.4.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 316
8.4.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Fermentation 316
8.4.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Filtration 318
8.4.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Emulsification 319
8.4.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Drying 320
8.4.6 Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing and Crystallization 321
8.5 Conclusions 323
References 324
9 Irradiation of Food 333
Monalisa Sahoo, Pramod Aradwad, Chirasmita Panigrahi, Vivek Kumar and S. N. Naik
9.1 Irradiation 334
9.1.1 Sources of Radiation 334
9.1.2 Dose Range & Dose Mapping 335
9.1.3 Packaging Material for Irradiation 337
9.2 Techniques for Food Irradiation 338
9.2.1 Gamma Rays Irradiators 338
9.2.2 Electron Beam Accelerators 340
9.2.2.1 Direct Methods 341
9.2.2.2 Induction Methods 341
9.2.2.3 Microwave or Radio-Frequency Methods 341
9.2.3 X-Rays (Bremsstrahlung) Irradiators 341
9.3 Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods 343
9.4 Application of Irradiation on Different Food Commodities 343
9.4.1 Sanitation and Decontamination 344
9.4.2 Sprout Inhibition and Delay in Ripening 344
9.4.3 Insects and Pest Control 349
9.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Irradiation of Food 349
9.5.1 Advantages of Food Irradiation 349
9.5.2 Disadvantages of Food Irradiation 350
9.6 Factors Affecting Irradiation of Food 351
9.6.1 Water Content 351
9.6.2 Temperature 351
9.7 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation and Food Components 352
9.8 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation and Biological Cells 353
9.9 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation and Food Packaging Materials 354
9.10 Detection and Risk Assessment 354
9.10.1 Detection of Irradiation 354
9.10.2 Risk Assessment of Irradiated Foods 354
9.11 Consumer Behavior Towards Irradiated Food 356
9.12 Standards, Regulations and Legislation on Food Irradiation 357
9.12.1 International Standards 358
9.12.1.1 Human Health 358
9.12.1.2 Labelling 358
9.12.1.3 Plant Protection 359
9.12.1.4 Facilities 359
9.12.1.5 Dosimetry 359
9.12.1.6 Packaging 360
9.12.2 National Regulations 360
9.12.2.1 Regulations for Human Health 360
9.12.2.2 Regulations for Labeling 361
9.12.2.3 Regulations for Plant Health 361
9.13 Future Perspectives and Conclusions 362
References 362
10 Active Packaging in Food Industry 375
Roopa H., Anil Panghal, Anju Kumari, Navnidhi Chhikara, Ekta Sehgal and Kritika Rawat
10.1 Introduction 376
10.2 Active Packaging Components 378
10.2.1 Oxygen Scavengers 379
10.2.2 Carbondioxide Absorber/Emitter 383
10.2.3 Ethylene Scavengers 383
10.2.4 Flavor & Odor Absorber/Emitter 384
10.2.5 Humidity Control 384
10.3 Antimicrobial Packaging 384
10.3.1 Composition 385
10.3.2 Mechanism of Antimicrobial Agents 386
10.3.3 Types of Antimicrobial Packaging 388
10.3.3.1 Antimicrobial Agent Sachets/Pads are Inserted Into Packages 388
103.3.2 Antimicrobial Agents are Directly Incorporated Into Polymers 389
10.3.3.3 Coating or Adsorbing Antimicrobials to Polymer Surfaces 389
10.3.3.4 Immobilization of Antimicrobials by Ionic or Covalent Linkages to Polymers 389
10.3.4 Commercial Antimicrobial Packaging Products and Manufactures 390
10.4 Uses of Active Packaging 390
10.5 Comparison Between Active and Intelligent Packaging 390
10.6 Market Report on Active and Intelligent Packaging 391
10.7 Disadvantage 392
10.8 Advantage 393
10.9 Safety Issues in Active Packaging 393
10.10 Applications in Food Industry 395
10.11 Recent Advancement in Antimicrobial Packaging Films 397
10.12 Challenges 398
10.13 Conclusion 398
References 399
11 Supercritical Fluid 405
Cassia Pereira Barros, Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Erick Almeida Esmerino, Socorro Josefina Villanueva-Rodríguez and Adriano Gomes da Cruz
11.1 Introduction 405
11.2 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) Technology: General Aspects and Fundamentals 407
11.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) Processing 411
11.4 Applications in Food Processing 413
11.4.1 Extraction and Fractionation of Food Compounds 413
11.4.2 Enzymatic and Microbial Inactivation 422
11.4.3 Effects on Physicochemical Parameters 432
11.4.4 Effects on Sensory Properties 434
11.5 Advantages and Limitations of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) 435
References 441
12 Image Processing for Food Safety and Quality 451
Krishna Kumar Patel, S. K. Goyal and Yashwant Kumar Patel
12.1 Introduction 452
Image Acquisition Techniques 454
(1) Image acquisition Technique for External Quality Assessment 454
Computer Vision 454
Principle of Computer Vision and Its Basic Components 456
Image Processing 457
Application of Image Processing 462
Sorting and Grading of Fruits and Vegetables 462
Defect Detection of Fruits and Vegetables 464
Cereals/Grains Assessment 464
Processed Food 465
(2) Image Acquisition Technique for Internal Quality Assessment 466
Application MRI, X-Ray and CT 471
Conclusion 473
References 473
13 High Pressure Processing: An Overview 479
Yashwant Kumar Patel and Krishna Kumar Patel
13.1 Introduction 480
13.2 What is HPP? 481
13.3 Historical Background 481
13.4 Principle of High Pressure Processing 483
13.5 Classification of High Pressure Processing Equipment 486
13.5.1 Pressure Application Based HPP Equipments 486
13.5.2 Processing System Based HPP Equipments 487
13.5.3 HPP Based on Energy Recovery System 488
13.5.4 HPP System Based on Vessel Arrangement 488
13.6 Effects of HPP on Food Derivatives 488
13.6.1 Effect of HPP on Color, Texture and Sensory Attributes 488
13.6.2 Effect on Fat 489
13.6.3 Effect on Carbohydrates, Proteins and Molecular Weight of Molecules 490
13.6.4 Effect of HPP on Other Bio-Active Molecules 491
13.7 Effect on Microorganisms during HPP 491
13.7.1 Critical Processing Parameters of HPP 492
13.7.1.1 Pressure and Time 493
13.7.1.2 Temperature 493
13.7.1.3 pH 494
13.7.1.4 The Water Activity (aw) 495
13.8 Kinetics Belongs to Microbial Growth and Inactivation 495
13.8.1 D Value 495
13.8.2 Z Value (°C) 497
13.8.3 F Value (Second) 497
13.8.4 Spoilage Probability 497
13.9 Packaging Importance in HPP 498
13.10 High Pressure Processing Applications 499
13.10.1 Fruits, Vegetables and Processed Food Products 500
13.10.2 Meat and Sea-Foods 502
13.11 Benefits and Drawbacks 502
13.12 Future Prospects of the HPP 504
13.13 Conclusion 504
References 505
14 Artificial Intelligence in Food Processing 511
Manish Tiwari, H. Pandey, Arunima Mukherjee and R. F. Sutar
14.1 Introduction 512
14.2 Evolution of Artificial Intelligence 514
14.3 Principles of Artificial Intelligence 515
14.4 Global Developments in Artificial Intelligence 518
14.5 Artificial Intelligence and Food Processing 520
14.6 Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Food Processing 521
14.6.1 Sorting Fresh Produce 522
14.6.2 Quality Assessment 522
14.6.2.1 Using AI Methods 522
14.6.2.2 Using Integrated Computer Vision-AI System 530
14.6.3 Flavor Identification 535
14.6.4 Drying Technology 537
14.6.5 Food Safety Compliance 537
14.6.6 Cleaning Food Processing Equipment 538
14.6.7 Efficient Supply Chain Management 538
14.6.8 Anticipating Consumer Preferences 538
14.6.9 Developing New Products 539
14.7 Challenges 539
14.8 Future Aspects 539
Conclusions 540
References 541
15 Ohmic Heating 551
Ramon da Silva Rocha, Cássia Pereira Barros, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Paola Mutti, Massimo Cigarini, Matteo Di Rocco, Andrea Brutti, Cristina Alamprese, Marcia Cristina Silva, Erick Almeida Esmerino and Adriano Gomes da Cruz
15.1 Definition 552
15.2 Microbial Inactivation 554
15.3 Applications 564
15.3.1 Dairy 564
15.3.2 Meat and Fish 574
15.3.2.1 Meat 574
15.3.2.2 Fish 580
15.3.3 Eggs and Egg Products 584
15.3.4 Cereal Products 586
15.3.5 Juices 591
15.4 Commercial Status 593
15.5 Limitations and Advantages 594
References 597
Index 611
