Bio-Based Packaging
An authoritative and up-to-date review of sustainable packaging development and applications
Bio-Based Packaging explores using renewable and biodegradable materials as sustainable alternatives to non-renewable, petroleum-based packaging. This comprehensive volume surveys the properties of biopolymers, the environmental and economic impact of bio-based packaging, and new and emerging technologies that are increasing the number of potential applications of green materials in the packaging industry. Contributions address the advantages and challenges of bio-based packaging, discuss new materials to be used for food packaging, and highlight cutting-edge research on polymers such as starch, protein, polylactic acid (PLA), pectin, nanocellulose, and their nanocomposites.
In-depth yet accessible chapters provide balanced coverage of a broad range of practical topics, including life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio-based packaging products, consumer perceptions and preferences, supply chains, business strategies and markets in biodegradable food packaging, manufacturing of bio-based packaging materials, and regulations for food packaging materials. Detailed discussions provide valuable insight into the opportunities for biopolymers in end-use sectors, the barriers to biopolymer-based concepts in the packaging market, recent advances made in the field of biopolymeric composite materials, the future of bio-plastics in commercial food packaging, and more. This book:- Provides deep coverage of the bio-based packaging development, characterization, regulations and environmental and socio-economic impact- Contains real-world case studies of bio-based packaging applications- Includes an overview of recent advances and emerging aspects of nanotechnology for development of sustainable composites for packaging- Discusses renewable sources for packaging material and the reuse and recycling of bio-based packaging products
Bio-Based Packaging is essential reading for academics, researchers, and industry professionals working in packaging materials, renewable resources, sustainability, polymerization technology, food technology, material engineering, and related fields.
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xix
Series Preface xxvii
Preface xxix
1 Starch-Based Packaging Materials 1
Ying Chen, Kai Lu, Hongsheng Liu, and Long Yu
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Macrostructures and Phase Transitions of Starch 2
1.2.1 Microstructures of Starch Granules 2
1.2.2 Phase Transition During Thermal Processing 3
1.3 Extrusion Processing for Starch 5
1.3.1 Phase Transition During Extrusion 5
1.3.2 Rheological Behaviors of Starch-Based Materials 6
1.4 Improving Mechanical Properties by Reinforcement 7
1.4.1 Reinforcement by Natural Fillers 7
1.4.2 Starch-Based Nanocomposites 9
1.4.3 Self-Reinforced Composites 11
1.4.4 Blending with Other Natural Polymers 12
1.4.5 Functionalized Composites 14
1.5 Reducing Moisture Sensitivity by Coating 15
1.6 Applications in Packaging 16
1.7 Summary and Future Work 17
Acknowledgments 19
References 19
2 Protein-Based Materials for Packaging Applications 27
V. G. Martins, V. P. Romani, P. C. Martins, and D. Nogueira
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Proteins 28
2.3 Protein Films for Food Packaging 29
2.4 Film Production Processes 32
2.5 Characterization of Films 34
2.5.1 Mechanical Properties 34
2.5.2 Barrier Properties 35
2.5.3 Structural Properties 36
2.5.4 Thermal and Optical Properties 37
2.5.5 Biodegradability of Polymers 37
2.6 Protein Films Application 38
2.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 41
2.8 Conclusions 43
References 43
3 Protein-Based Biodegradable Polymer: From Sources to Innovative Sustainable Materials for Packaging Applications 51
Huafeng Tian, Yunxuan Weng, Rakesh Kumar, Priya Rani, and Gaiping Guo
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Forms of Packaging Materials 52
3.3 Commercially Available Proteinous Material for Packaging 52
3.4 Preparation Methods for Protein-Based Materials for Different Packaging Applications 53
3.5 Properties of Protein-Based Packaging Materials 54
3.5.1 Mechanical Properties 54
3.5.2 Moisture Resistance 56
3.5.3 Barrier Properties 56
3.5.4 Biodegradability 57
3.5.5 Antimicrobial Properties 58
3.6 Nanomaterials Incorporated Protein-Based Packaging Materials 58
3.6.1 Protein/Inorganic Filler Nanocomposites 58
3.6.2 Protein/Organic Filler Nanocomposites 60
3.7 Protein-Based Blends as Packaging Materials 61
3.7.1 Protein/Natural Polymer Blends 61
3.7.2 Protein/Synthetic Biopolymeric Blends 62
3.8 Conclusions 63
References 63
4 Chitin/Chitosan Based Films for Packaging Applications 69
J.M. Moura, B.S. Farias, T.R.S. Cadaval, and L.A.A. Pinto
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Chitin and Chitosan 70
4.3 Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Chitosan-Based Films 72
4.3.1 Mechanical and Barrier Properties 72
4.3.2 Antimicrobial Properties 78
4.3.3 Antioxidant Characteristics 79
4.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 80
References 81
5 Perspectives for Chitin/Chitosan Based Films as Active Packaging Systems on a Food Product 85
Ewelina Jamróz, Piotr Kulawik, and Fatih Özogul
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 The Effect of the Incorporation of Chitosan on the Properties of Films 86
5.3 Blends of Chitosan and Other Biopolymers 88
5.4 Characterization of Chitosan Films with Nanofillers 89
5.5 Preparation of Chitosan Films with Active Compounds 92
5.6 Chitosan-Based Films as Packaging Material Systems 93
5.7 Conclusions 98
References 99
6 Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite Coating for Food Packaging Applications 105
Dr. M. Vishnuvarthanan
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Polymers in Food Packaging 106
6.3 Surface Modification of Polymers 106
6.4 Antimicrobial Packaging 106
6.5 Biopolymers 106
6.6 Pectin 107
6.7 Bionanocomposites 107
6.8 Nanoclay 107
6.9 Silver Nanoparticles 107
6.10 Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite Coating 108
6.10.1 Preparation and Coating of Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite 108
6.10.2 Tensile Strength 109
6.10.3 Oxygen Transmission Rate 110
6.10.4 Water Vapor Transmission Rate 111
6.10.5 Surface Color and Opacity 112
6.10.6 Contact Angle Analysis 113
6.10.7 Coating Adhesion Strength 114
6.10.8 Antimicrobial Properties 115
6.11 Conclusions 116
References 116
7 Nanocomposite: Potential Nanofiller for Food Packaging Applications 119
Rafeeya Shams, Qurat ul eain Hyder Rizvi, Aamir Hussain Dar, Ishrat Majid, and Shafat Khan
7.1 Introduction 119
7.2 Nanofillers 120
7.2.1 Nanoclays 121
7.2.2 Silica (SiO2) 122
7.2.3 Silver 122
7.2.4 Gold 123
7.2.5 Metal Oxide 123
7.2.6 Zinc Oxide 123
7.2.7 Titanium Dioxide 124
7.2.8 Copper Oxide 124
7.2.9 Chitosan Nanostructures 124
7.2.10 Carbon Nanotubes 125
7.3 Nanocomposites in Active Packaging 125
7.4 Nanocomposites in Intelligent Packaging 126
7.5 Nanomaterial Migration into the Food Matrix 126
7.6 Commercial Aspects of Food Packaging 127
7.7 Conclusion and Future Trends 127
References 128
8 Nanocellulose Reinforced Polypropylene and Polyethylene Composite for Packaging Application 133
Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim-Anuar, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, Mohd Idham Hakimi, Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin, and Mohd Azwan Jenol
8.1 Introduction 133
8.2 Plastic Packaging 135
8.3 Nanocellulose 136
8.4 Polypropylene and Polyethylene Nanocellulose Composites 137
8.5 Compatibility Between Nanocellulose with Polyethylene and Polypropylene Matrices 137
8.6 Processing Method of PP- and PE-Nanocellulose Composites 139
8.6.1 Solvent Casting 140
8.6.2 Melt Compounding 140
8.6.3 Injection and Compression Molding 141
8.6.4 One-Pot 141
8.7 Factors Influencing the Performance of the PP- and PE-Nanocellulose Composites 142
8.7.1 Drying Effect of Nanocellulose 143
8.7.2 Chemical Composition of Nanocellulose 143
8.8 Characteristics of the PP- and PE- Nanocellulose Composites 143
8.9 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 146
References 146
9 Green Food Packaging from Nanocellulose-Based Composite Materials 151
Abdel Rehim M.H.
9.1 Introduction 151
9.2 Synthesis of Cellulose Nanostructures 152
9.3 Modification of Nanocellulose 153
9.4 Properties of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites 154
9.5 Active Packaging Material 156
9.6 Nanocellulose in Smart Packaging 157
9.7 Future Trends and Conclusions 158
References 159
10 Nanocellulose Polylactide-Based Composite Films for Packaging Applications 165
Dogan Arslan, Emre Vatansever, and Mohammadreza Nofar
10.1 Introduction 165
10.2 Polylactide 167
10.3 Nanocellulose Classification 168
10.4 PLA/Nanocellulose Nanocomposites 171
10.4.1 Processing 171
10.4.2 Mechanical Properties 173
10.4.3 Crystallization Behavior 179
10.4.4 Barrier Properties 181
10.4.5 Applications 184
10.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 184
References 185
11 Nanocellulose Composite Films for Packaging Applications 193
Latifah Jasmani, Sharmiza Adnan, Z.M.A. Ainun, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas
11.1 Introduction 193
11.2 Preparation of Nanocellulose 194
11.2.1 Nanocrystalline Cellulose 195
11.2.2 Nanofibrillated Cellulose 196
11.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose 196
11.3 Nanocellulose Barrier Property 196
11.4 Nanocellulose in Films 197
11.4.1 Extrusion of Nanocellulose Composite 197
11.4.2 Casting of Nanocellulose Films 198
11.4.3 Filtration of Nanocellulose Composite 199
11.4.4 Coating 200
11.5 Nanocellulose Film in Packaging 200
11.5.1 Food and Beverage Industry 201
11.5.2 Medicine and Pharmaceuticals 201
11.6 Conclusion 202
References 202
12 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 205
Rushdan Ibrahim, S.M Sapuan, R.A Ilyas, and M.S.N. Atikah
12.1 Introduction 205
12.2 Selling Rice Straw 206
12.3 Selling Pulp 207
12.4 Selling Pulp Molded Products 211
12.5 Selling Paper 214
12.6 Cost of Commercialization of Products from Rice Straw 218
12.7 Conclusions 220
References 222
13 Sustainable Paper-Based Packaging 225
Latifah Jasmani, Z.M.A. Ainun, Sharmiza Adnan, Rushdan Ibrahim, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas
13.1 Introduction 225
13.2 Types of Raw Material for Paper-Based Packaging 227
13.2.1 Source of Fiber 227
13.2.2 Types of Pulp 230
13.2.2.1 Chemical Pulp 230
13.2.2.2 Mechanical Pulp 231
13.2.2.3 Recovered Paper 231
13.2.2.4 Non-fiber Material 232
13.3 Papermaking 232
13.4 Types of Paper-Based Packaging 232
13.4.1 Boxes 234
13.4.1.1 Folding Cartons 234
13.4.1.2 Rigid Boxes 234
13.4.1.3 Corrugated Boxes 235
13.4.1.4 Molded Pulp Containers 235
13.4.2 Paper Sheet 235
13.4.2.1 Greaseproof Paper 235
13.4.2.2 Glassine Paper 236
13.4.2.3 Vegetable Parchment 237
13.4.2.4 Waxed Paper 238
13.4.2.5 Decorative Paper 239
13.4.3 Using Types of Paper-Based Packaging 239
13.4.3.1 Food and Beverages Industries 239
13.4.3.2 Transportation Industries 240
13.5 Packaging Requirement for Paper-Based Packaging 242
13.5.1 Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Paper 242
13.5.2 Other Requirements 242
References 243
14 Properties and Food Packaging Application of Poly-(Lactic) Acid 245
N.H Sari, S. Suteja, S.M Sapuan, and R.A Ilyas
14.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 245
14.2 Properties of PLA 246
14.2.1 Melt and Transition Temperature 246
14.2.2 Crystallinity 247
14.3 Mechanical 250
14.3.1 Physical 251
14.3.2 Thermal Properties 253
14.3.3 Optical 254
14.3.4 Flame Retardancy 254
14.3.5 Water Resistance 255
14.3.6 Grease Permeability 256
14.3.7 Water Vapor Permeability (WVP) 256
14.3.8 Biodegradation Properties as a Packaging 256
14.4 Food Packaging Application of PLA 257
14.5 Conclusions 260
References 260
15 Poly(Lactic) Acid Modified Films for Packaging Applications 265
Jissy Jacob, Sabu Thomas, and Sravanthi Loganathan
15.1 Introduction 265
15.2 Biopolymers 266
15.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers 267
15.2.2 Poly(Lactic) Acid (PLA) 267
15.3 Modified PLA Films 267
15.3.1 PLA/Clay Composites 267
15.3.2 PLA/Carbonaceous Composites 270
15.3.3 PLA/Bio Filler Composites 271
15.3.4 PLA-Mesoporous Silica Composites 274
15.4 Conclusions 275
References 276
16 Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Packaging Application 279
Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim-Anuar, Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, Mohd Azwan Jenol, Nur Amira Mamat Razali, Mohd Idham Hakimi, Nur Farisha Abd Rahim, and Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin
16.1 Introduction 279
16.2 Biopolymers 281
16.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 282
16.3.1 Characteristic of PHAs 282
16.3.2 Biodegradability and Enzymatic Degradability of PHAs 284
16.3.3 Application of PHAs 284
16.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Composites for Packaging Applications 286
16.5 Chemical Recycling of PHAs 287
16.5.1 Pyrolysis of PHAs 287
16.5.2 Application of Crotonic Acid, 2-Pentenoic Acid, and its Derivatives 288
16.6 Future Direction and Recommendations 289
References 290
17 Manufacturing of Biobased Packaging Materials 295
Min Min Aung, Hiroshi Uyama, Marwah Rayung, Lu Lu Taung Mai, Moe Tin Khaing, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas
17.1 Introduction 295
17.2 Bio-Based Packaging Materials 296
17.3 Food Packaging Materials 297
17.3.1 Biomass Plastic in Food Packaging 298
17.3.1.1 Eucommia Elastomer 300
17.3.1.2 Biopolyurethane Using Vegetable Oils 302
17.4 Properties of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 305
17.4.1 Biodegradable Plastic 305
17.4.2 Biodegradable Polyester Composite 309
17.5 Manufacturing Food Applications 312
17.6 Food Industry and Bio-Based Materials Demand 314
17.7 Conclusions and Remarks 315
Acknowledgments 316
References 316
18 Bioplastics: An Introduction to the Role of Eco-Friendly Alternative Plastics in Sustainable Packaging 319
Usman Lawal and Ravi Babu Valapa
18.1 Introduction 319
18.2 Important Biopolymers for Food Packaging 321
18.2.1 Starch 322
18.2.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 322
18.2.3 Cellulose 323
18.2.4 Chitosan 323
18.2.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 324
18.3 Important Properties of Biopolymers for Food Packaging Applications 325
18.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Biopolymers 325
18.3.2 Barrier Property 325
18.3.3 Antimicrobial Properties 327
18.3.4 Optical Properties 328
18.3.5 Combination with Plasticizers 328
18.4 Biopolymers and the Future of Food Packaging 329
18.5 Conclusions 330
Acknowledgment 330
References 330
19 Bioplastics: The Future of Sustainable Biodegradable Food Packaging 335
S. Ayu Rafiqah, A Khalina, Khairul Zaman, ISMA Tawakkal, A.S Harmaen, and N Mohd Nurrazi
19.1 Introduction 335
19.2 Types of Plastic for Food Packaging 336
19.2.1 Biopolymer 337
19.2.2 Biodegradable Polymer - Polybutylene Succinate 338
19.2.3 Biodegradable Polymer - Polylactic Acid 340
19.3 Food Packaging 341
19.3.1 Starch-Based Bioplastic Packaging 343
19.3.2 Oxygen Transmission Rate 344
19.3.3 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 345
19.4 Active Food Packaging 346
19.4.1 Antimicrobial Food Packaging 347
References 348
20 Renewable Sources for Packaging Materials 353
R.A Ilyas, S.M Sapuan, H.A Aisyah, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, H.N. Salwa, Min Min Aung, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, L.N. Megashah, and Z.M.A. Ainun
20.1 Introduction 354
20.2 Packaging Materials from Bio-based Materials 355
20.3 Development of Bio-based Packages 356
20.3.1 Polycarbonates from Sugars and Carbon Dioxide 356
20.3.2 Chitosan 359
20.3.3 Plant Cell Wall Biopolymers 359
20.3.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 359
20.3.5 Polylactic Acid 359
20.3.6 Starch 360
20.3.7 Protein 360
20.3.8 Chitin and Chitosan 360
20.4 Decomposition of Biodegradable Plastics 361
20.5 Renewable Energy Production Using Biobased Packaging Waste 363
20.6 Cost of Bio-based Materials 363
20.7 Life Cycle Assessment 364
20.8 Social Consumption Behavior 364
20.9 Conclusions 365
Acknowledgment 365
References 365
21 Environmental Advantages and Challenges of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 371
R.A Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, M.R.M. Asyraf, Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and Z.M.A. Ainun
21.1 Introduction 372
21.2 Advantages of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 373
21.2.1 Reduction of Waste 373
21.2.2 Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emission 373
21.2.3 Rapid Decomposition 373
21.2.4 Sustainability 374
21.2.5 New Marketing Opportunities and Export Industries 374
21.3 Challenges of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 375
21.3.1 Inappropriate Regulations 375
21.3.2 Lack of Composting Facilities 375
21.3.3 Manufacturing Costs 376
21.4 Conclusions 377
References 377
22 Life Cycle Assessment of Bio-Based Packaging Products 381
H.N. Salwa, S.M. Sapuan, M.T. Mastura, M.Y.M Zuhri, and R.A. Ilyas
22.1 Packaging: Function and Materials 381
22.1.1 Bio-Based Materials for Packaging Applications 383
22.1.2 Packaging Product Life Cycle 385
22.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 390
22.2.1 Background of LCA 390
22.2.2 LCA Approaches 391
22.3 LCA Goal and Scope (Definition of a Functional Unit and System Boundary) 392
22.3.1 Functional Unit (FU) 392
22.3.2 System Boundary 393
22.4 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 396
22.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 398
22.6 Life Cycle Results Interpretation 402
22.7 Conclusions 407
Acknowledgments 408
References 408
23 Reuse and Recycle of Biobased Packaging Products 413
R.A. Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, F.A. Sabaruddin, M.S.N. Atikah, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.R.M. Asyraf, M.R.M. Huzaifah, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and Z.M.A. Ainun
23.1 Introduction 413
23.2 Waste Management Efficiency for Bioplastics 417
23.3 Prevention and Reduction 418
23.4 Reuse Bio-Based Products 418
23.5 Packaging Material Recycling 418
23.6 Mechanical Recycling Process 421
23.7 Organic Recycling or Composting 421
23.8 Impact of Aging and Recycling on the Quality of Plastic Materials 421
23.9 Conclusions 422
References 423
24 Socioeconomic Impact of Bio-Based Packaging Bags 427
M. Chandrasekar, T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, K. Senthilkumar, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, M.R. Ishak, R.M. Shahroze, and Suchart Siengchin
24.1 Introduction 427
24.2 Socioeconomic Factors Influencing the Bioplastic-Based Packaging Materials 428
24.2.1 Interest from the Investors 428
24.2.1.1 Market Projection on the Production of Bioplastic Materials 429
24.2.2 Commercial Producers of Bio-Based Packaging Materials and Scope of Application 430
24.2.3 Policy Making and Support from the Government 431
24.2.4 Consumer Perception and Acceptance by Consumers (According to Countries) 432
24.2.5 Challenges for Bioplastics in Packaging Applications 432
24.2.5.1 Material Performance 432
24.2.5.2 Recycling 432
24.3 Future Scope 433
24.4 Conclusion 434
References 434
25 The Assessment of Supply Chains, Business Strategies, and Markets in Biodegradable Food Packaging 437
K. Norfaryanti, Z.M.A. Ainun, and S. Zaiton
25.1 The Context of Bio-Packaging 437
25.2 Types of Biodegradable Food Packaging and Its Characteristics 438
25.2.1 Active Packaging 439
25.2.2 Intelligent Packaging 439
25.2.3 Biodegradable Packaging 440
25.3 Biodegradable Food Packaging Supply/Value Chain 440
25.4 Business Strategies and Market Assessment 442
25.4.1 Strategy and Market Projection 443
25.4.2 Biodegradable Food Packaging Trends 447
25.5 Conclusion 448
Acknowledgments 448
References 448
26 The Market for Bio-Based Packaging: Consumers’ Perceptions and Preferences Regarding Bio-Based Packaging 453
Carsten Herbes
26.1 Introduction: The Need for Bio-Based Packaging 453
26.2 Bio-Based Packaging: An Overview 455
26.3 Consumer Perception of Bio-Based Plastics 456
26.4 Consumer Perception of Bio-Based Packaging 458
26.5 Consumer Identification of Bio-Based Packaging 460
26.6 Industry Perspectives 460
26.7 Conclusion: Problems and Potential Solutions 460
References 462
27 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials 467
R.A Ilyas, S.M Sapuan, L.N. Megashah, Rushdan. Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, Z.M.A. Ainun, Min Min Aung, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and C.H. Lee
27.1 Introduction 468
27.2 Asia 470
27.2.1 Malaysia 470
27.2.2 Japan 472
27.2.3 China 473
27.2.4 India 474
27.3 Europe 475
27.4 North America and South America 479
27.4.1 History of Formal Food Packaging Regulation in the US 481
27.4.2 US Food Packaging Regulations 482
27.4.3 Environmental Impact of Materials Used in Food Packaging 483
27.4.4 Rigid Plastic Containers 483
27.4.5 Regulations 483
27.4.6 The US Exposure Approach to FCM Legislation 485
27.4.7 The Regulatory Enforcement Process in the United States 485
27.4.8 A Practical Approach to the US Food Contact Materials Regulatory Regime 486
27.5 Australia and Africa 487
27.5.1 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials in Australia 487
27.5.2 Reducing Environmental Harm in the Natural Environment 488
27.6 Regulation for Food Packaging Materials in Africa 488
27.6.1 Foods Based on Cereals and Wheat Production 488
27.6.2 Beers 488
27.6.3 Food Packaging; Reuse, Reduce, and Recycle 490
27.7 Conclusion 491
References 491
Index 495
