Milk is considered a complete food, consumed at all stages of life. It is transformed into numerous products, fermented or not, as well as into a variety of ingredients, in order to preserve it or some of its constituents from a few days to a few years.
This book addresses the innovations that deal with milk and the use of gentle techniques that best preserve dairy constituents. This book explores some of the current challenges facing the milk processing industry, namely: i) showing the advances in infant milk formula to best mimic breastfeeding and the in vitro models that study newborn digestion, ii) combining tradition and new consumer expectations on emblematic dairy products, such as yogurt and fermented milk products, iii) defining optimal cheese-making practices to control both cheese quality and yield, iv) outlining the current research approaches to meet “consum’actor” demands, as well as those dealing with v) the fouling and cleaning of dairy equipment in a context of increasingly constrained water and energy use.
Table of Contents
Preface ix
Valérie GAGNAIRE and Thomas CROGUENNEC
Chapter 1. Infant Formulae: Ingredient Selection, Manufacturing Technology, Innovation, Challenges and Opportunities 1
Nicolas MALTERRE, Loreto M. ALONSO-MIRAVALLES and James A. O’MAHONY
1.1. Introduction 1
1.1.1. Context for formula-feeding 1
1.1.2. Human and bovine milk 2
1.2. Types of infant formula and respective regulations 4
1.2.1. Infant or first-age formula 4
1.2.2. Follow-on or second-age formula 7
1.2.3. Cereal-based foods and baby foods 8
1.2.4. Available formats of infant and follow-on formulae 11
1.2.5. Formulae for special medical purposes 11
1.3. Ingredients 13
1.3.1. Proteins 13
1.3.2. Lipids 15
1.3.3. Carbohydrates 16
1.3.4. Minor nutrients 16
1.3.5. Ingredient innovation for infant formula 17
1.4. Technological options for manufacture of infant nutritional products 20
1.4.1. Powders versus liquids 20
1.4.2. Innovation in processing technologies for infant formula 27
1.5. Conclusion 28
1.6. References 28
Chapter 2. Strengths and Limitations of Current In Vitro Models Used for Studying Infant Digestion 41
Amira HALABI, Thomas CROGUENNEC and Amélie DEGLAIRE
2.1. Introduction 41
2.2. Specificities of infant digestion 43
2.2.1. Anatomy and function 43
2.2.2. Protein digestion 45
2.2.3. Lipid digestion 47
2.2.4. Carbohydrate digestion 51
2.3. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion models 51
2.3.1. In vitro static and semi-dynamic models 58
2.3.2. In vitro dynamic model 63
2.4. In vitro colon fermentation models 66
2.5. Other in vitro models 66
2.6. Conclusion 67
2.7. References 68
Chapter 3. Yogurts and Fermented Milks 79
Marie-Hélène FAMELART, Sylvie TURGEON, Valérie GAGNAIRE, Gwénaël JAN, Eric GUEDON, Audrey GILBERT, Anne THIERRY, Jean-Philippe DROUIN-CHARTIER
3.1. What are yogurts and fermented milks? 79
3.2. Yogurt and fermented milk production 81
3.2.1. Dairy blend formulation (milk composition and standardization) 81
3.2.2. Homogenization and heat treatment 82
3.2.3. The fermentation microbiota and its role in techno-functional and organoleptic properties 84
3.3. Microstructure--texture--functionality relationships 91
3.3.1. Microstructure of firm yogurts 91
3.3.2. Microstructure of stirred yogurts 93
3.3.3. Techniques for observing yogurt structure 94
3.3.4. Links between microstructure and physical or sensory properties 97
3.3.5. Syneresis 98
3.4. Nutrition and health 99
3.4.1. Consumption trends 99
3.4.2. Yogurt and health -- epidemiological perspectives 99
3.4.3. Yogurt and health -- clinical perspectives 102
3.4.4. Yogurt and health -- general outlook 107
3.5. General conclusion: yogurts for the future 109
3.6. References 111
Chapter 4. Enzymatic Gelation of Milk, Curd Draining and Cheese Yields 129
Julien BAULAND, Sébastien ROUSTEL, Marc FAIVELEY, Marie-Hélène FAMELART and Thomas CROGUENNEC
4.1. Introduction 129
4.2. Casein micelle: structure, stability and equilibrium with the soluble phase of milk 130
4.2.1. Casein micelle structure and stability 130
4.2.2. Mineral equilibrium with the soluble phase of milk 133
4.3. Enzymatic coagulation of milk: formation and aging of a colloidal gel. 137
4.3.1. Hydrolysis ofκ-casein and aggregation of para-micelles 137
4.3.2. Gel structure and rheological properties in the linear domain 139
4.3.3. Mechanisms of gel aging 140
4.3.4. Effect of variations of physico-chemical conditions and milk composition on the structure and the rheological properties of the enzymatic gel 143
4.3.5. Rheological properties at large strains 147
4.4. Physics of cheese curd and mechanisms of fat and protein losses during continental cheese manufacture 148
4.4.1. Macrosyneresis of the curd 148
4.4.2. Fat and protein losses during cutting and stirring 154
4.5. Conclusion 163
4.6. References 164
Chapter 5. Do Technological Operations Have an Impact on the Nutritional Properties of Dairy Products? 173
Frédéric GAUCHERON and Constance BOYER
5.1. Introduction 173
5.2. Uses, benefits and consequences of heat treatments and homogenization 174
5.2.1. Heat treatments 174
5.2.2. Homogenization 177
5.3. Purification of dairy constituents to obtain high value-added fractions 179
5.3.1. Dairy proteins 179
5.3.2. Bioactive peptides 179
5.3.3. Polar lipids 180
5.4. Biotechnology for dairy products: using enzymes and micro-organisms of interest 181
5.4.1. Lactose removal 181
5.4.2. Use of micro-organisms 181
5.5. Dairy products for tomorrow? What technologies? What research? 183
5.5.1. Dairy products for tomorrow? 183
5.5.2. What new milks and technologies need to be adapted? What kind of research? 184
5.6. References 188
Chapter 6. Fouling in the Dairy Industry 193
Weiji LIU and Guillaume DELAPLACE
6.1. Introduction 193
6.2. Thermal processing of milk and related issues 194
6.3. Composition of milk and fouling deposits 196
6.4. Thermal denaturation of whey proteins 198
6.4.1. β-lactoglobulin (BLG) 198
6.4.2. Thermal denaturation mechanisms of BLG 199
6.4.3. Thermal denaturation kinetic models of BLG 207
6.4.4. Caseins and their chaperone-like functions 212
6.5. Mineral precipitations 220
6.5.1. Calcium phosphate precipitation. 220
6.5.2. Effect of calcium on BLG denaturation and fouling 222
6.6. Overall fouling mechanisms and influencing factors 225
6.7. Fouling models 229
6.7.1. Fouling characteristics: definition and evolution 229
6.7.2. One-dimensional fouling models 232
6.7.3. Two/three-dimensional CFD fouling models 236
6.7.4. Other fouling models 237
6.8. Cleaning of dairy fouling 240
6.9. Conclusions 241
6.10. References 242
List of Authors 261
Index 265
