Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store, move, and deliver energy produced from other sources. It has the potential for high energy efficiency, significant environmental and social benefits, and economic competitiveness. Traditional energy resources will not be able to meet the growing energy demand, despite the advances in energy management and energy conservation - understanding how hydrogen energy can solve this problem is crucial.
Hydrogen Energy: Principles and Applications provides the information needed by energy resource planners, scientists, engineers, and government officials to make informed energy-related decisions. Divided into three parts, the book opens with an introduction to various energy issues, sources, and regulations, including the basics of thermodynamics and fuel cells. The second part addresses the practical aspects of hydrogen energy, such as availability, distribution, extraction, processing, purification, transportation, transmission, and storage. The final section details the economics, energy-environmental interactions, and ethical and political considerations of the development and use of hydrogen energy, including discussion of investment and business contacts, energy option analysis and optimization, and future prospects.
Covering the fundamentals of hydrogen energy with a thorough and accessible approach, the book: - Equips readers with a well-rounded working knowledge of hydrogen energy - Covers the latest technological advances, economic considerations, and the role hydrogen plays in a renewable energy economy - Offers a pragmatic, real-world perspective rather than focusing on theoretical issues - Contains nearly 50 illustrative examples ranging from elementary thermodynamic calculations to optimization applications using linear programming
Hydrogen Energy: Principles and Applications is a must-read for those working in the energy industry, particularly environmental engineering and science professionals, as well as government officials, policymakers, instructors, and trainers involved in energy-related fields.
Table of Contents
Preface xvii
Part I Energy Overview 1
1 Glossary of Key Energy Terms 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Importance of Energy Literacy 4
1.3 Glossary 4
1.4 Symbols and Acronyms 42
References 47
2 Introduction to Energy and Energy Issues 48
2.1 Introduction 48
2.2 Early History of Energy 49
2.3 Later History of Energy 50
2.4 Energy “Emergencies” 50
2.5 Net Energy Analysis 51
2.6 Hydrogen as an Energy/Fuel 53
2.7 The Future 54
References 56
3 Energy Resources 57
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Coal 58
3.3 Oil 59
3.4 Natural Gas 60
3.5 Shale Oil/Tar Sands 62
3.5.1 Shale Oil 62
3.5.2 Tar Sands 63
3.6 Solar Energy 63
3.6.1 Passive Solar Lighting and Heating 64
3.6.2 Solar Electricity Production 65
3.7 Nuclear Energy 66
3.8 Geothermal Energy 68
3.9 Wind Energy 69
3.10 Hydrokinetic Energy 71
3.10.1 Hydropower 71
3.10.2 Tidal Energy 72
3.10.3 Ocean Thermal Energy 72
3.10.4 Wave Energy 73
3.11 Biomass-Based Fuels 73
References 74
4 Environmental Policy and Regulatory Considerations for Hydrogen Energy 77
Marybeth Reynolds
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Opportunities and Benefits for the Emerging Hydrogen Energy Industry 78
4.2.1 The Production of Hydrogen 78
4.2.2 Clean, Green Zero-Carbon Hydrogen 79
4.2.3 Low-Carbon Blue Hydrogen 80
4.2.4 Fuel Cells 80
4.2.5 Hydrogen’s Potential Uses in Decarbonization 81
4.2.6 Challenges 81
4.3 Hydrogen Energy Policy Priorities 82
4.3.1 Keep the Focus on Climate Goals and Deploy Hydrogen Strategically 82
4.3.2 Prioritize Equity and Public Health 83
4.3.3 Consider Long-Term Efficiency and Cost 83
4.3.4 Adopt Rigorous Standards and Definitions for Clean Hydrogen 84
4.4 U.S. Federal Energy Policies and Regulatory Frameworks 84
4.4.1 Hydrogen in Historical U.S. Energy Policy 84
4.4.2 Significant Federal Policies and Initiatives Since 2016 85
4.4.2.1 H2@Scale, 2016 85
4.4.2.2 Hydrogen Program Plan, 2020 86
4.4.2.3 Hydrogen Shot, 2021 86
4.4.2.4 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, 2021 87
4.4.2.5 Inflation Reduction Act, 2022 87
4.4.3 Current Federal Regulation of Hydrogen 88
4.5 The Role of the States 91
4.6 Global Hydrogen Energy Policies and Priorities 92
4.6.1 Summary of Hydrogen Strategies in Key Global Markets 92
4.6.2 Policy Priorities to Accelerate a Global Market for Clean Hydrogen 92
4.6.2.1 Establishing Hydrogen Strategies 92
4.6.2.2 Developing and Adopting International Codes and Regulations 93
4.6.2.3 Leveraging Domestic Resources and Export Opportunities 93
4.7 Summary 93
References 93
5 Thermodynamic Considerations 96
5.1 Introduction 96
5.2 Energy Fundamentals and Principles 97
5.2.1 Potential Energy 97
5.2.2 Kinetic Energy 97
5.2.3 Energy Fundamentals 98
5.2.4 Energy Principles 98
5.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 100
5.4 Enthalpy Effects 101
5.4.1 Sensible Enthalpy Effects of Heating 101
5.4.2 Latent Enthalpy Changes 102
5.4.3 Chemical Reaction Enthalpy Effects 103
5.5 Second Law Calculations 104
5.6 Phase Equilibrium 105
5.7 Stoichiometry 106
5.8 Chemical Reaction Equilibrium 107
5.9 Conservation Laws 108
5.9.1 Conservation of Mass 109
5.9.2 Conservation of Energy 109
5.10 Ideal Gas Law 110
References 112
6 Fuel Cells 113
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Electrical Units 114
6.3 Fuel Cell Overview 114
6.4 Unit Cells 115
6.4.1 Basic Structure 115
6.4.2 Internal Fuel Cell Process Details 116
6.5 Critical Functions of Cell Components 117
6.6 Fuel Cell Stacking 118
6.6.1 Planar-Bipolar Stacking Fuel Cell (PBSFC) 118
6.6.2 Stacks with Tubular Cells 119
6.7 Fuel Cell Systems 120
6.8 Fuel Cell Types 120
6.8.1 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 123
6.8.1.1 Advantages 123
6.8.1.2 Disadvantages 123
6.8.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) 123
6.8.2.1 Advantages 124
6.8.2.2 Disadvantages 124
6.8.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) 124
6.8.3.1 Advantages 124
6.8.3.2 Disadvantages 125
6.8.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 125
6.8.4.1 Advantages 125
6.8.4.2 Disadvantages 125
6.8.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 125
6.8.5.1 Advantages 126
6.8.5.2 Disadvantages 126
6.9 Fuel Cell Characteristics 126
6.10 Overall Advantages/Disadvantages 127
6.11 Batteries 128
6.12 Summary 129
References 130
Part II Select Hydrogen Energy Topics 131
7 Hydrogen Energy Overview 133
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 Early History 135
7.3 Processing 136
7.4 Storage 138
7.4.1 Physical-Based Storage 138
7.4.2 Materials-Based Storage 139
7.5 Transportation and Transmission 139
7.6 Uses 140
7.6.1 Potential Role of Ammonia for Alternative Vehicle Fuel in a Hydrogen Economy 141
7.7 Environmental Issues 142
References 143
8 Government Hydrogen Programs 144
8.1 Introduction 144
8.2 Department of Energy Programs 145
8.3 Other Federal Programs 146
8.4 State Programs 146
8.4.1 California 147
8.4.2 Oregon 147
8.4.3 Washington 148
8.4.4 South Carolina 148
8.5 Tax Incentives 148
8.5.1 ITC for Fuel Cell Property 149
8.5.2 New Qualified Fuel Cell Motor Vehicle Credit 149
8.5.3 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Refueling Property Credit 149
8.5.4 Alternative Fuel Credit 150
8.6 Project Financing 150
8.7 Insurance Coverage 151
8.8 Stakeholder Engagement 151
References 152
9 Hydrogen Physical and Chemical Properties 153
Onwukaeme Chibuzo Kenneth
9.1 Introduction 153
9.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 153
9.2.1 Physical Properties 154
9.2.2 Chemical Properties 156
9.3 Properties of Mixtures 158
9.4 Properties of Hydrogen 159
9.4.1 Chemical and Molecular Properties of Hydrogen 159
9.4.2 Physical Properties of Hydrogen 162
9.5 Hydrogen Isotopes 163
9.6 The Hydrogen Bond 165
9.7 The Quintessential Energy Carrier 166
References 167
10 Hydrogen-Bearing Compounds 169
10.1 Introduction 169
10.2 Water 170
10.3 Deuterium 171
10.4 Ammonia 176
10.5 Methane 177
10.6 Other Hydrocarbon Molecules 179
10.6.1 Open-Chain Hydrocarbons 179
10.6.2 The Alkene Series 179
10.6.3 The Alkyne Series 180
10.6.4 Cyclic Hydrocarbons 180
10.6.5 Other Organic Compound Groups 180
10.7 The Alkane Series 180
References 181
11 Hydrogen Production Processes 182
11.1 Introduction 182
11.2 Overview of Hydrogen Production Processes 185
11.3 Fossil Fuels 186
11.4 Water Splitting Production Processes 188
11.4.1 Water Electrolysis Production Process 189
11.4.2 Photoelectrical Hydrogen Production Process 190
11.4.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting Production Process 190
11.5 Biomass Production Processes 191
11.6 Hydrogen Purification 194
11.6.1 Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 195
11.6.2 Adsorptive Purification 195
11.6.3 Cryogenic Liquid Purification 196
11.6.4 Carbon Monoxide Removal 196
11.7 Hydrogen Laboratory Processes 196
11.8 Emerging Hydrogen Technologies 197
References 198
12 Hydrogen Storage 199
12.1 Introduction 199
12.2 Chemical Industry Storage Options 200
12.2.1 Gas Storage 200
12.2.2 Liquid Storage 200
12.2.3 Tank Details 201
12.2.4 Storage Batteries 201
12.3 Hydrogen Storage Overview 202
12.3.1 Compressed Gas 202
12.3.2 Liquid Storage 202
12.3.3 Underground Storage 202
12.3.4 Metal Hydrides 203
12.3.5 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers 203
12.4 Gaseous Hydrogen Storage 203
12.4.1 Composite Tanks 203
12.4.2 Glass Microspheres 204
12.5 Liquid Hydrogen Storage 204
12.5.1 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen 204
12.5.2 Storage as a Constituent in Other Liquids 204
12.5.3 Rechargeable Organic Liquids 205
12.6 Solid Hydrogen Storage 205
12.6.1 Carbon and Other High Surface Area Materials 206
12.6.1.1 Carbon-Based Materials 206
12.6.1.2 Other High Surface Area Materials 206
12.6.2 Rechargeable Metal Hydrides 206
12.6.2.1 Alanates 207
12.6.2.2 Borohydrides 207
12.6.3 Water-Reactive Chemical Hydrides 207
12.6.4 Thermal Chemical Hydrides 207
12.7 The Moon Project 207
12.8 Summary of Hydrogen Storage Strategies 210
References 211
13 Hydrogen Transportation and Transmission 213
13.1 Introduction 213
13.2 Hydrogen Transportation/Transmission Options 214
13.2.1 Motor Carriers 215
13.2.2 Pipelines 215
13.2.3 Ships 215
13.2.4 Trains 216
13.3 Traditional Transportation Options 216
13.3.1 Air Transportation 216
13.3.2 Rail Transportation 218
13.3.3 Water Transportation 218
13.3.4 Highway Transportation 219
13.4 Chemical Industry Transportation Options 219
13.4.1 Transportation of Liquids 219
13.4.2 Transportation of Gases 220
13.5 Hydrogen Transportation: Pipelines 220
13.6 Hydrogen Transportation: Mobile 221
13.7 On-Site Hydrogen Production 222
13.8 Transportation via Chemical Hydrogen Carriers 223
13.9 International/Global Hydrogen Transportation 223
13.10 Regulation Issues 224
13.11 New Hydrogen Transmission Options 226
References 227
14 Hydrogen Conversion 229
14.1 Introduction 229
14.2 Energy Conversion Technical Details 230
14.3 Electric Power Systems 231
14.4 The Grid System 234
14.4.1 Storage Costs Multiply to Achieve 90% Capacity Factor for Large Solar PV 236
14.4.2 Cost of Vogtle 3 and 4 Nuclear is Less than PV with Storage for 90% Capacity Factor 238
14.5 Conversion: The Combustion Process 238
14.6 Conversion: The Fuel Cell Process 240
References 241
15 Hydrogen Uses 243
15.1 Introduction 243
15.2 Power Generation 245
15.3 Transportation 246
15.4 Industry Feedstock 248
15.5 Hydrogen-Containing Feedstock Chemicals 251
15.6 Heating 252
15.7 Energy Storage 253
References 254
16 The Quintessential Hydrogen Byproduct: Potable Water 256
16.1 Introduction 256
16.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Water 257
16.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 258
16.4 The Desalination Process 259
16.5 Traditional Seawater Desalination Processes 260
16.5.1 Evaporation Processes 260
16.5.2 Reverse Osmosis 261
16.5.3 Crystallization Processes 262
16.6 New Process Options for Potable Water Production 262
16.6.1 System and Method for Obtaining Potable Water from Fossil Fuels 263
16.6.2 System and Method for Obtaining Potable Water Employing Geothermal Energy 264
16.6.3 Water Requirement of Electrolysis 265
16.7 The Theodore Hydrogen Water Byproduct Process 266
References 267
17 Safety Considerations 268
17.1 Introduction 268
17.2 Hydrogen Details 270
17.3 Worker Safety Regulations and Requirements 271
17.4 Site Safety Plans 273
17.5 Chemical Safety Data Sheets 274
17.6 The Hydrogen SDS 280
References 284
Part III Technical Engineering Issues 285
18 Environmental Health and Hazard Risk Assessment 287
18.1 Introduction 287
18.2 The Health Risk Assessment Process 288
18.3 The Health Risk Assessment Process Components 290
18.3.1 Health Problem Identification 290
18.3.2 Dose-Response Assessment 291
18.3.3 Exposure Assessment 292
18.3.4 Risk Characterization 293
18.4 Hazard Risk Assessment Process 294
18.5 The Hazard Risk Assessment Process Components 295
18.5.1 Hazard Identification 296
18.5.2 Hazard/Accident Probability 297
18.5.3 Accident Consequence Evaluation 298
18.6 Future Trends 299
References 300
19 Energy-Environmental Interactions 301
19.1 Introduction 301
19.2 U.S. Hydrogen Energy Policy 302
19.3 U.S. Energy-Environmental Policy Issues 303
19.4 Individual State Energy Policies 305
19.5 Global Energy Policies 306
19.6 Environmental Concerns: A Technological Mandate 309
19.7 Net Energy Concepts 311
19.8 Interaction with Other Goals 313
References 314
20 Ethical Considerations 316
20.1 Introduction 316
20.2 The Present State of Ethics 317
20.3 Dos and Don’ts 318
20.4 Integrity 319
20.5 Moral Issues 320
20.6 Guardianship 322
20.7 Engineering Ethics 323
20.8 Future Trends in Professional and Environmental Ethics 324
20.9 Case Studies 326
20.9.1 Case Study 1 326
20.9.2 Case Study 2 327
20.9.3 Case Study 3 327
References 328
21 Economic Considerations 330
21.1 Introduction 330
21.2 Economic and Finance Definitions 332
21.2.1 Simple Interest 332
21.2.2 Compound Interest 333
21.2.3 Present Worth 333
21.2.4 Time Value of Money 334
21.2.5 Depreciation 334
21.2.6 Equipment Cost and Cost Indexes 335
21.2.7 Capital Recovery Factor 335
21.2.8 Net Present Worth 336
21.2.9 Perpetual Life 336
21.2.10 Break-Even Point 337
21.2.11 Approximate Rate of Return 337
21.2.12 Exact Rate of Return 337
21.2.13 Bonds 337
21.2.14 Incremental Cost 338
21.2.15 Inflation 338
21.3 Investment and Risks 338
21.4 The Traditional Economic Evaluation Process 339
21.5 Capital and Operating Costs 341
21.6 Project and Process Evaluation 342
21.7 Hydrogen Energy Economy Considerations 342
21.8 Concluding Remarks 344
References 346
22 Optimization Considerations 347
22.1 Introduction 347
22.2 History of Optimization 349
22.3 Scope of Optimization 351
22.4 General Analytical Formulation of the Optimum 352
22.5 Mathematical Concepts in Linear Programming 355
22.6 Applied Concepts in Linear Programming 356
22.7 Optimization of Existing Systems 359
References 362
23 Illustrative Examples 363
23.1 Introduction 363
23.2 Energy Principles 363
23.2.1 The Ideal Gas Law 363
23.2.2 Mass Conservation Law 364
23.2.3 Stoichiometry 364
23.3 Thermodynamics 365
23.3.1 Partial Pressure 365
23.3.2 Gross Heating Value of a Fuel 366
23.3.3 Material and Energy Balance Calculations 367
23.4 Energy Systems 368
23.4.1 Energy Conversion Efficiency 368
23.4.2 Energy-Mass Relationships 369
23.4.3 Energy Storage 369
23.5 Environmental Issues 370
23.5.1 Catalyst Recovery 370
23.5.2 Explosion Overpressure 371
23.5.3 Weibull Distribution Calculation 373
23.6 Ethics 374
23.6.1 Domestic Ethical Issues 374
23.6.2 Production Increase Demands 374
23.6.3 ISO 14000 Consulting Dilemma 374
23.7 Economics 375
23.7.1 Optimum Pipe Diameter Considerations 375
23.7.2 Optimum Hydrogen Plant Profit 376
23.7.3 Plant Selection Based on Tax Credit Availability 378
23.8 SDS Information 379
23.8.1 Layman’s Definition of an SDS 379
23.8.2 Limitation of SDSs 379
23.8.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics Contained in SDSs 380
23.9 Optimization 380
23.9.1 Profit Model Optimization 380
23.9.2 Hydrogen Plant Operation 381
23.9.3 Optimization of Utility Conversion to Hydrogen 382
References 383
Index 384
